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Volga Bulgaria

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the historical country on the Volga. For the ship that sank in the river, see Bulgaria (ship).
Not to be confused with Bulgaria.
Volga Bulgaria
late 9th century–1240s
StatusVassals of the Khazars (late 9th century-969)[1]
CapitalBolghar
Bilär
Common languagesBulgar
Religion
Tengrism, later Sunni Islam (after Almish Iltäbär)
GovernmentMonarchy
Ruler 
• 9th century
Şilki
• 10th century
Almış, Ahmad, Mikaʾil, Abdallah, Talib, Muʾmin I, Muʾmin II, Shamgun
• 11th-13th centuries
Khaidar, Mukhammad, Saʾid, Baradz, Ibrahim, Otyak, Ghabdula Chelbir, Ilham Khan
Historical eraMiddle Ages
• Established
late 9th century
• Conversion to Islam
922
• Conquered by the Mongols
1240s
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Old Great Bulgaria
Mongol Empire
Today part ofRussia

Volga Bulgaria or Volga–Kama Bulgaria (sometimes referred to as the Volga Bulgar Emirate[2]) was a historical Bulgar[3][4][5] state that existed between the 9th and 13th centuries around the confluence of the Volga and Kama River, in what is now European Russia. Volga Bulgaria was a multi-ethnic state with large numbers of Bulgars, Finno-Ugrians, Varangians, and East Slavs.[6] Its strategic position allowed it to create a local trade monopoly with Norse, Cumans, and Pannonian Avars.[7]

History

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Origin and creation of the state

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The origin of the early Bulgars is still unclear. Their homeland is believed to be situated between Kazakhstan and the North Caucasian steppes. Interaction with the Hunnic tribes, causing the migration, may have occurred there, and the Pontic–Caspian steppe seems the most likely location.[8]

Some scholars propose that the Bulgars may have been a branch or offshoot of the Huns or at least Huns seem to have been absorbed by the Bulgars after Dengizich's death.[9] Others however, argue that the Huns continued under Ernak, becoming the Kutrigur and Utigur Hunno-Bulgars.[10] These conclusions remain a topic of ongoing debate and controversy among scholars.

The Bulgars were an Oghuric people[11][12] who settled north of the Black Sea. During their westward migration across the Eurasian steppe, they came under the overlordship of Khazars, leading other ethnic groups, including Finno-Ugric and Iranic as well as other Turkic peoples.[11] In about 630 they founded Old Great Bulgaria, which was destroyed by the Khazars in 668. Kotrag, following the death of his father, began to extend the influence of his Bulgars to the Volga River. He is remembered as the founder of Volga Bulgaria.[13][14] They reached Idel-Ural in the eighth century, where they became the dominant population at the end of the 9th century, uniting other tribes of different origin who lived in the area.[15]

However, some Bulgar tribes under the leader Asparukh moved west from the Pontic-Caspian steppes and eventually settled along the Danube River.,[16] in what is now known as Bulgaria proper, where they created a confederation with the Slavs, adopting a South Slavic language and the Eastern Orthodox faith. However, Bulgars in Idel-Ural eventually gave birth to Chuvash people. Unlike Danube Bulgars, Volga Bulgars did not adopt any language. The Chuvash language today is the only Oghuric language that survived and it is the sole living representative of the Volga Bulgar language.[17][18][19][20]

Most scholars agree that the Volga Bulgars were initially subject to the Khazar Khaganate. This fragmented Volga Bulgaria grew in size and power and gradually freed itself from the influence of the Khazars. Sometime in the late 9th century, unification processes started and the capital was established at Bolghar (also spelled Bulgar) city, 160 km south of modern Kazan. However, complete independence was reached after Khazaria's destruction and conquest by Sviatoslav in the late 10th century; thus, Bulgars no longer paid tribute to it.[21][22] Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur named the Volga Bulgar people as Ulak.[23]

Conversion to Islam and further statehood

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Main article: Muscovite–Volga Bulgars war (1376)

Volga Bulgaria adopted Islam as a state religion in 922 – 66 years before the Christianization of Kievan Rus'. In 921 Almış sent an ambassador to the Caliph requesting religious instruction. The next year an embassy returned with Ibn Fadlan as secretary. A significant number of Muslims already lived in the country.[24] The Volga Bulgars attempted to convert Vladimir I of Kiev to Islam; however Vladimir rejected the notion of Rus' giving up wine, which he declared was the "very joy of their lives".[25]

Commanding the Volga River in its middle course, the state controlled much of trade between Europe and Asia prior to the Crusades (which made other trade routes practicable). Bolghar, was a thriving city, rivalling in size and wealth the greatest centres of the Islamic world. Trade partners of Bolghar included from Vikings, Bjarmland, Yugra and Nenets in the north to Baghdad and Constantinople in the south, from Western Europe to China in the East. Other major cities included Bilär, Suar (Suwar), Qaşan (Kashan) and Cükätaw (Juketau). Modern cities Kazan and Yelabuga were founded as Volga Bulgaria's border fortresses. Some of the Volga Bulgarian cities have still not been found, but they are mentioned in old East Slavic sources. They are: Ashli (Oshel), Tuxçin (Tukhchin), İbrahim (Bryakhimov), Taw İle. Some of them were ruined during and after the Golden Horde invasion.[citation needed]

Volga Bulgaria played a key role in the trade between Europe and the Muslim world. Furs and slaves were the main goods in this trade, and the Volga Bulgarian slave trade played a significant role. People taken captive during the viking raids in Western Europe, such as Ireland, could be sold to Moorish Spain via the Dublin slave trade[26] or transported to Hedeby or Brännö in Scandinavia and from there via the Volga trade route to Russia, where slaves and furs were sold to Muslim merchants in exchange for Arab silver dirham and silk, which have been found in Birka, Wollin and Dublin;[27] initially this trade route between Europe and the Abbasid Caliphate passed via the Khazar Kaghanate,[28] but from the early 10th century onward it went via Volga Bulgaria and from there by caravan to Khwarazm, to the Samanid slave market in Central Asia and finally via Iran to the Abbasid Caliphate.[29] Slavic pagans were also enslaved by Vikings, Magyars, and Volga Bulgars, who transported them to Volga Bulgaria, where they were sold to Muslim slave traders and continued to Khwarezm and the Samanids, with a minor part being exported to the Byzantine Empire.[30] This was a major trade; the Samanids were the main source of Arab silver to Europe via this route,[29] and Ibn Fadlan referred to the ruler of the Volga Bulgar as "King of the Saqaliba" because of his importance for this trade.[29]

The Rus' principalities to the west posed the only tangible military threat. In the 11th century, the country was devastated by several raids by other Rus'. Then, at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, the rulers of Vladimir (notably Andrew the Pious and Vsevolod III), anxious to defend their eastern border, systematically pillaged Volga Bulgarian cities. Under Rus' pressure from the west, the Volga Bulgars had to move their capital from Bolghar to Bilär.[citation needed]

Decline

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Main article: Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria

From the beginning of the 13th century, the Volga Bulgars were subject to multiple raids from the East Slavic principalities as multiple skirmishes took place for control of the Unzha River which was an important commercial route. In 1220, the Grand Duke Yuri II of Vladimir captured Ustiug and besieged the important Bulgar town of Aşlı. The consequence of this was that Vladimir-Suzdal gained access to Volga Bulgaria's northern trade routes and hindered the means of the Bulgars acquiring fur.[31] The Nikon Chronicle also details that following this, Yuri II began amassing a large force of Rus' for an even larger campaign against the Bulgars. The Bulgars would send entreaties and proposals for peace but these were all rejected. Yuri travelled with his army to Omut where further entreaties for peace were received from the Bulgars however these were still rejected. However, by the time Vasilko Konstantinovich of Rostov arrived, Yuri accepted an offer of gifts and agreed to adhere to an earlier peace treaty with the Bulgars that was agreed under the rule of his father, Vsevolod the Big Nest.[31]

In September 1223 near Samara an advance guard of Genghis Khan's army under the command of Uran, son of Subutai Bahadur,[disputed – discuss] entered Volga Bulgaria but was defeated in the Battle of Samara Bend.[citation needed] In 1236, the Mongols returned and in five years had subjugated the whole country, which at that time was suffering from internal war [citation needed]. Henceforth Volga Bulgaria became a part of the Ulus Jochi, later known as the Golden Horde. It was divided into several principalities; each of them became a vassal of the Golden Horde and received some autonomy. By the 1430s, the Khanate of Kazan was established as the most important of these principalities.[31]

Chuvashia became a continuation of Volga Bulgaria.

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The phrase about Moscow's subordination of "neighboring Bulgaria" to the Kazan Khanate after the capture of Kazan is found in the "Kazan Chronicle" (c. 1560-1565), the authorship of which is traditionally attributed to a Russian copyist, possibly from the entourage of Metropolitan Macarius. The full text of the chronicle has been preserved in 17th-century copies, but the original dates back to the 16th century. Here is the key fragment (in a modern translation from Old Russian):

> "And after the capture of Kazan, Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich ordered his commanders to go to Neighboring Bulgaria, because of the insult to them, which endlessly carried out uprisings and rebellions, and together with them he subjugated the Mari, because they rose up against his power. And so he conquered them, and burned their cities, and peace will be granted to them only under the yoke of his state."

Original (approximate text in Old Russian):

> «И по взятии Казани царь Иванъ Василіевичь повелѣ воеводамъ своимъ ити на Cъсѣднюю Болгарію, иже обиду восстаніи чиниша, и съ ними Черемисы подъчинити, иже противу власти его сташа. И тако воеваша ихъ, и грады ихъ пожгоша, и миръ имъ дарованъ бысть подъ ярмомъ его державы».

For this reason, the sources indicate:

Kazan, once the Tatar Kingdom, received its name from its capital city, and this from the river Kazanka (Kasanska), flowing around it with its winding channel. Kazan was built by Perekop fugitives from Taurida, during the reign of Vasily Vasilyevich in Moscow. Vasily Ivanovich forced her to take Tsars from him for herself. And then, when she rebelled, he burdened her with the deprivations of a dangerous war, but did not conquer her. But in the year 7061 from S. M., in 1552 A.D., his son Ivan took Kazan, after a six-month siege together with its Cheremis (Ceremissis), forced it to submit to the power of Moscow. However, as a reward for the insult, he subjugated neighboring Bulgaria (Bulgariam), which he could not tolerate because of frequent rebellions, so that this country, not accustomed to submission, would learn to bear a foreign yoke, and he adorned Kazan by establishing in it a Metropolis and the seat of the Metropolitan. — The Journey to Muscovy of Baron Augustin Mayerberg and Horace Wilhelm Calvucci, ambassadors of the Most August Roman Emperor Leopold to the Tsar and Grand Duke Alexei Mikhailovich in 1661, described by Baron Mayerberg himself[32]

After the capture of Kazan in 1552, uprisings began in the lands of the former khanate and adjacent territories. "Neighboring Bulgaria" here is not Volga Bulgaria as a state (destroyed in 1236), but the region where the remnants of the Bulgar population lived, not included in the Kazan Khanate, or territories associated with the Bulgar past (the southeast of modern Chuvashia). The Cheremis (Mari) are mentioned as allies of these rebels. This is confirmed by the campaigns of the governors in 1553-1556 against the rebels in the Volga region (Arskaya side - Zyureiskaya daruga, Mountain side of the Volga)..

In 1551, Ivan the Terrible concluded a diplomatic treaty of alliance with the Udmurts on the Arskaya Daruga and the Chuvashes (Bulgars) on the Zyurei Daruga, after which with the Cheremis and Chuvashes (Bulgars) of the mountain side for the construction of Sviyazhsk and the subordination of the Chuvashes (Bulgars) to the Moscow protectorate. Sviyazhsk was built with the aim of creating a bridgehead for the siege of Kazan, and its construction became an important factor in the further subordination of the local peoples. However, the subordination was not final. In early April 1551, the Sviyazhsk voivodes (Russians) reported that "the mountain people rebelled, many again got involved with the Kazan people, and in all of them there is little truth, their disobedience is great." Soon after, the mountain people, the Chuvash (Bulgars) and Cheremis, "all betrayed Moscow and united with Kazan and then came to the city of Sviyazhsk to drive out the Russians." In December 1552, after the capture of Kazan, the Chuvash (Bulgars) and Cheremis attacked Russian couriers, merchants and convoys on the road from Sviyazhsk to Vasilsursk, which shows that their loyalty to Moscow remained shaky.

1552–1557: the final subjugation of the Bulgars. The Russian government responded with repression: in 1553, for example, 74 Civilsk Chuvashes, accused of rebellion, were hanged in Sviyazhsk, and their property was handed over to informers.

Cheremis wars:

  • First Cheremis War I (1552-1557)
  • Second Cheremis War II (1571-1574)
  • Third Cheremis War III (1581-1585)
  • Dzhan-Gali Uprising (1613-1618)
  • Stepan Razin Uprising (1667-1671)
  • Pugachev Uprising (1773-1775)

This is also evidenced by: "Coat of arms on the great state seal of Ivan IV Grozny" - where there is a separate coat of arms with the inscription "Seal of Bulgaria" and "Seal of the Kingdom of Kazan", because these are two different lands and possessions. One Kazan (Tatar), the other Bulgar (Chuvash).

The first person to state in writing that the Chuvash originated from the Bulgars was Adam Olearius (Germany, 17th century), who visited Russia in the 1630s and wrote down his observations about the Chuvash, linking them to the Bulgars based on local legends and stories. The first edition of the book was published in Schleswig, 1647, "Beschreibung der muscowitischen und persischen Reise"("Description of a Journey to Muscovy and Persia"), p. 192 (German edition):[33]

“The Chuvash, who now live along the Volga, are the remnants of the ancient Bulgarians, who once had a powerful kingdom, but are now under the rule of Moscow” «Die Tschuwaschen, so jetzt an der Wolga wohnen, sollen die Überbleibsel der alten Bulgaren seyn, welche sonst ein mächtig Königreich gehabt»[33]

The second person to assert that the Chuvashes "call themselves Bulgars, just as the Russians call them" was V.N. Tatishchev, who personally traveled all over the Volga region and founded the city of Stavropol (now Tolyatti), wrote in his work "Russian History from the Most Ancient Times": Book 1, Part 1, p. 156 (in the new edition p. 234):

“The Chuvash, as they call themselves and the Russians, are ancient Bulgarians who had their dwellings up and down the Volga, but then many of them moved to other places.” [34] «Чуваши, яко сами себя и от россиян тако зовут, суть болгары древние, иже по Волге вниз и вверх жилища свои имели, но потом многие из них в иные места переселились»[34]

The next person to connect the Chuvash with the Bulgars was Johann Georg Gmelin (Germany/Russia, 18th century) "Reise durch Sibirien von dem Jahr 1733 bis 1743" ("Travel through Siberia from 1733 to 1743"), volume 2, Göttingen, 1752, p. 87:[35]

“The Chuvash, whom I met in the Kazan region, are the descendants of the ancient Volga Bulgars, who have preserved their language” (Travel across Russia, 1733–1743, volume 2). «Die Tschuwaschen, die ich im Kazanschen Lande angetroffen, sind Nachkommen der alten Wolga-Bulgaren, welche ihre Sprache erhalten haben»[35]

Context: Gmelin, a German scholar in Russian service, conducted expeditions along the Volga region and left records about the Chuvash, based on their language and traditions.

Later in 1863, Khusain Faizkhanov, after unsuccessful attempts to translate the epitaphs of the "Volga Bulgars" from the Tatar language, however, paying attention to the Russian assertion about the Bulgar origin of the Chuvash, read the inscriptions based on the data of the Chuvash language, after which he published his work: Three Bulgar gravestone inscriptions. News of the Imperial Archaeological Society. - St. Petersburg, 1863. - Vol. IV. - Pp. 396-404, table III

Language

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Further information: Bulgar language

Volga Bulgar language was a Turkic language. The only extant member of the Oghuric group that is still spoken today is the Chuvash language. The language persisted in the Volga region up until the 13th or 14th century. Although there is no direct evidence, some scholars believe it gave rise to modern Chuvash language[17][18][19][20] while others support the idea that Chuvash is another distinct Oghur Turkic language.[36]

Italian historian and philologist Igor de Rachewiltz noted a significant distinction of the Chuvash language from other Turkic languages. According to him, the Chuvash language does not share certain common characteristics with Turkic languages to such a degree that some scholars consider Chuvash as an independent branch from Turkic and Mongolic. The Turkic classification of Chuvash was seen as a compromise solution for classification purposes.[37]

Definition of verbs in Volga Bulgar[38][39]

Tenses and moods Volga Bulgar Examples in words
Past tense -ti/tı, -ri/rı وَلتِ (vel-ti)
Past tense 2 -ruvı/rüvi (<*-dugı), -tuvı/tüvi (<*-tugı) كُوَجڔوُي (küveč-rüvi), بلطُوى (bal-tuvı)
Adjective form of verb -an/en طَنَان (tan-an), سَوَان (sev-en)
Adverb form of verb -sa/se بَرسَ (bar-sa)
Third person imperative -tur/tür طَنْطُرْ (tan-tur)

Volga Bulgars left some inscriptions in tombstones. There are few surviving inscriptions in the Volga Bulgar language, as the language was primarily an oral language and the Volga Bulgars did not develop a writing system until much later in their history.[40] After converting to Islam, some of these inscriptions were written using Arabic letters while the use of the Orkhon script continued. Mahmud al-Kashgari provides some information about the language of the Volga Bulgars, whom he refers to as Bulghars. Some scholars suggest Hunnic had strong ties with Bulgar and to modern Chuvash[41] and classify this grouping as separate Hunno-Bulgar languages.[42] However, such speculations are not based on proper linguistic evidence, since the language of the Huns is almost unknown except for a few attested words and personal names. Scholars generally consider Hunnish as unclassifiable.[43][44][45][46]

Numbers and Vocabulary in Volga Bulgar[39][38][47][48][49][50][51]

Volga Bulgar[52][53][47] Chuvash[54] Proto-Turkic[55]
one بر (bir) пӗр (pĕr) *bīr
two اک (eki) иккӗ (ikkĕ) *ẹki
three وج (več) виççӗ (viççĕ) *üč
four تُوات (tüvet) тăваттă (tăvattă) *tȫrt
five بل (bel), بيال (biyel) пиллӗк (pillĕk) *bẹ̄ĺ(k)
six اَلطِ (altï) улттӑ (ulttă) *altï
seven جىَاتِ (cyeti) ҫиччӗ (śiččĕ) *yẹti
eight ڛَكِڔ (sekir) саккӑр (sakkăr) *sekiŕ
nine طُخِڔ (tuxïr) тӑххӑр (tăhhăr) *tokuŕ
ten وان (van) вуннӑ (vunnă) *ōn
twenty جِيِرم (ciyirim) ҫирӗм (śirĕm) *yẹgirmi
thirty وطر (vutur) вӑтӑр (văt̬ăr) *otuŕ
forty حرح (xïrïx) хӗрӗх (hĕrĕh) *kïrk
fifty الو (ellü) аллӑ (allă) *ellig
hundred جُور (cǖr) ҫӗр (śĕr) *yǖŕ

Mahmud al-Kashgari also provides some examples of Volga Bulgar words, poems, and phrases in his dictionary.. However, Mahmud al-Kashgari himself wasn't a native speaker of Volga Bulgar. Despite its limitations, Mahmud al-Kashgari's work remains an important source of information about the Volga Bulgar language and its place within the broader Turkic language family.

Cases in Volga Bulgar[38][39]

Case Volga Bulgar Examples in words
Genitive -∅ or -(ı)n اَغَان (ağā-n), يغقوُتن (yaquut-ın)
Accusative -ne/na مَسجِذڛَمنَ (mesčidsem-ne)
Dative-locative -a/e and -ne/na اِشنَ (iš-ne), بَجنَ (bač-na), جَالَ (čāl-a)
Ablative -ran, -ren; -tan, -ten ڊنيَاڔَان (dönyā-ran)
Third person possessive -i, -ı; -si, -sı هِيرِ (hīr-i), اِلغِجِڛِ (ılğıčı-sı)

Coats of arms of Volga Bulgaria during Tsarist Russia

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Ivan III was also called the "Prince of Bulgaria". The mention of the Bulgarian land has been present in the royal title since 1490. This refers to Volga Bulgaria.

Ivan by the grace of God is the sovereign of all Russia and the Grand Duke of Vladimir, and Moscow, and Novgorod, and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugra, and Prmsk, and Bolgar and others[56]

It is known that the Bulgarian coat of arms figure was used to designate the Bulgarian Kingdom and in the Great Seal of Tsar John IV. The seal was a "lion walking" (which is confirmed by the seals of the Volga Bulgarians found by archaeologists). On the coats of arms and seals of the Russian tsars, the lands of Volga Bulgaria were represented on a green field by a silver walking lamb with a red banner divided by a silver cross; the shaft is gold.[57] The erroneous perception of the beast on the Bulgarian coat of Arms in the Royal Titular as a lamb is explained by the poor quality of the reproduction of the image. In the "Historical Dictionary of Russian Sovereigns ..." by I. Nekhachin (ed. by A.Reshetnikov, 1793), the Bulgarian coat of arms is described as follows: "Bulgarian, in a blue field, a silver lamb wearing a red banner." Over time, the colour of the shield changed to green. In the Manifesto on the full coat of arms of the Empire (1800), the Bulgarian coat of arms is described as follows: "In a green field it has a white Lamb with a golden radiance near its head; in its right front paw it holds a Christian banner." The description of the coat of arms, approved in 1857: "The Bulgarian coat of arms: a silver lamb walking in a green field, with a scarlet banner, on which the cross is also silver; the shaft is gold."

  • Coat of arms of the Volga Bulgars on the great state seal of Ivan IV Grozny
    Coat of arms of the Volga Bulgars on the great state seal of Ivan IV Grozny
  • Coat of arms of the Volga Bulgars on the great state seal of Ivan IV Grozny
    Coat of arms of the Volga Bulgars on the great state seal of Ivan IV Grozny
  • Bulgarian Seal from the Great Seal of Ivan Grozny
    Bulgarian Seal from the Great Seal of Ivan Grozny
  • Coat of arms of Volga Bulgaria 1672
    Coat of arms of Volga Bulgaria 1672
  • Coat of arms of the Volga Bulgars. Tatarnikov K.V. Banners and coats of arms of the regiments of the Russian Army of the reigns of Catherine I and Peter II (1725-1730)
    Coat of arms of the Volga Bulgars. Tatarnikov K.V. Banners and coats of arms of the regiments of the Russian Army of the reigns of Catherine I and Peter II (1725-1730)
  • Coat of Arms of Bulgaria 1857
    Coat of Arms of Bulgaria 1857
  • Coat of Arms of Bulgaria 1857
    Coat of Arms of Bulgaria 1857
  • Coat of Arms of Volga Bulgaria
    Coat of Arms of Volga Bulgaria
  • Coat of arms of Volga Bulgaria 1626
    Coat of arms of Volga Bulgaria 1626
  • Upper right corner coat of arms of Volga Bulgaria
    Upper right corner coat of arms of Volga Bulgaria
  • Coat of arms of Volga Bulgaria 1714
    Coat of arms of Volga Bulgaria 1714

Demographics

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A large part of the region's population included Turkic groups such as Sabirs, Esegel, Barsil, Bilars, Baranjars, and part of the obscure[58] Burtas (by ibn Rustah). Modern Chuvash claim to descend from Sabirs, Esegels, and Volga Bulgars.[59]

Another part comprised Volga Finnic and Magyar (Asagel and Pascatir) tribes, from which Bisermäns probably descend.[60] Ibn Fadlan refers to Volga Bulgaria as Saqaliba, a general Arabic term for Slavic people. Other researches tie the term to the ethnic name Scythian (or Saka in Persian).[61]

Over time, the cities of Volga Bulgaria were rebuilt and became trade and craft centres of the Golden Horde. Some Volga Bulgars, primarily masters and craftsmen, were forcibly moved to Sarai and other southern cities of the Golden Horde. Volga Bulgaria remained a centre of agriculture and handicraft.[citation needed]

[edit]
  • Volga Bulgaria in the Eurasian world of AD 1200.
    Volga Bulgaria in the Eurasian world of AD 1200.
  • Adzes, Volga Bulgaria, 13-14 century.
    Adzes, Volga Bulgaria, 13-14 century.
  • Pottery of Volga Bulgaria, 10-14 century.
    Pottery of Volga Bulgaria, 10-14 century.
  • Necklaces, Volga Bulgaria, 10-14 century.
    Necklaces, Volga Bulgaria, 10-14 century.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Di Cosmo, Nicola (2018). Warfare in Inner Asian History (500-1800). Brill. pp. 139–140. ISBN 9789004391789.
  2. ^ Mako, Gerald (2016). "Volga Bulgar Emirate". The Encyclopedia of Empire: 1–3. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe009. ISBN 978-1-118-44064-3.
  3. ^ Shpakovsky, Viacheslav; Nicolle, David (2013). Armies of the Volga Bulgars & Khanate of Kazan. p. 14.
  4. ^ Champion, Timothy (2014). Nationalism and Archaeology in Europe. p. 227.
  5. ^ Koesel, Karrie J. (2014). Religion and Authoritarianism: Cooperation, Conflict, and the Consequences. p. 103.
  6. ^ Reuter, Timothy, ed. (1995). The New Cambridge medieval history. Vol. III, c. 900-1024. Cambridge [England] ; New York, NY, USA : Cambridge University Press. p. 504. ISBN 978-0-521-36291-7.
  7. ^ Popovski, Ivan (2017-05-10). A Short History of South East Europe. Lulu Press, Inc. ISBN 9781365953941. Archived from the original on 2023-01-21. Retrieved 2020-10-03.
  8. ^ Golden, Peter B. (1992). An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples. p. 137.
  9. ^ Maenchen-Helfen, Otto; Helfen, Otto (1973-01-01). The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture. University of California Press. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-520-01596-8.
  10. ^ Kim, Hyun Jin (2013-04-18). The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. 2013: Cambridge University Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-1-107-00906-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  11. ^ a b Golden 1992, p. 253, 256: "With their Avar and Türk political heritage, they assumed political leadership over an array of Turkic groups, Iranians and Finno-Ugric peoples, under the overlordship of the Khazars, whose vassals they remained." ... "The Bulgars, whose Oguric ancestors ..."
  12. ^ Hyun Jin Kim (2013). The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe. Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–59, 150–155, 168, 204, 243. ISBN 9781107009066.
  13. ^ MacDermott, Mercia (1998). Bulgarian folk customs. London Philadelphia (Pa.): J. Kingsley. ISBN 978-1-85302-485-6.
  14. ^ "MEX-M-MRS-1-2-3-PRM-0572". MEX-M-MRS-1-2-3-PRM-0572. doi:10.5270/esa-9ok7lmw. Retrieved 2024-06-11.
  15. ^ "Болгарлар". Tatar Encyclopaedia (in Tatar). Kazan: The Republic of Tatarstan Academy of Sciences. Institution of the Tatar Encyclopaedia. 2002.
  16. ^ "FFPS NEWS". Oryx. 26 (3): 176–183. July 1992. doi:10.1017/s003060530002367x. ISSN 0030-6053.
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  32. ^ Travel to Muscovy Baron Augustine Mayerberg, a member of the Court Council and Horace Wilhelm Kalvucci, a chevalier and member of the Government Council of Lower Austria, the ambassadors of the August Roman emperor Leopold to the tsar and Grand Duke Alexei Mihai.
  33. ^ a b Kalalo, Indah Nadya; Irawaty, Irawaty; Suprapti, Duhita Driyah (2025). "The Role of Law in Building Community Morality Indah Nadya Kalalo*, Irawaty, Duhita Driyah Suprapti* Building K, Semarang State University, Sekaran Campus, Gunungpati, Semarang City, Central Java, Indonesia *Corresponding Author DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.9010042 Received: 25 December 2024; Accepted: 28 December 2024; Published: 30 January 2025 ABSTRACT The Indonesian nation is a nation that has long been known as a nation that highly upholds eastern customs with its polite, friendly and civilized morality. However, at this time the reality of the Indonesian nation has experienced a very concerning moral degradation. This is evident in the many cases that have occurred, such as brawls between students, theft, robbery, rape, free sex, alcohol, drugs and the current trend is the proliferation of corruption in almost all state institutions. Indonesia as a state of law needs to strive to rebuild the morality of the nation's children through the law itself by creating a law-abiding legal culture, increasing legal awareness, and seeking the implementation of policies that can build the morality of the Indonesian people. This study aims to determine the role of law in building morality in society. This research This research uses a literature study research method, while the data collection technique is carried out by exploring journals and other information relevant to the study. The results of this study indicate that the role of law in building community morality is to ensure certainty and justice, in people's lives there is always a difference between patterns of behavior or behavior that applies in society and patterns of behavior desired by norms (rules). law. Keywords- Law, Morality, Society, Moral Decadence INTRODUCTION The personality of the Indonesian nation is a manifestation of the character of the Indonesian nation, where the process starts from habituation in a synergistic and continuous manner which grouped into an Indonesian nation with a national character. Each individual has a personality that is manifested from within him. Personality thats manifests itself in various ways, some give bad dominance, some dominate good and some are not so good, all of which are influenced by genetic, environmental, family and local factors. Everyone has the right to manifest a personality with good character because personality is a gift from the Creator of the universe, which is human nature. Character is something that is very fundamental in terms of nation and state, therefore the loss of character will cause the loss of the nation's next generation. The Indonesian nation is a nation that has long been known as a nation that highly upholds eastern customs with its polite, friendly and civilized morality. In the Asian region, Indonesia is the friendliest country. The Legatum Institute, a research institution based in the UK in The Legatum Prosperity Index 2016 ranked Indonesia as the most friendly and sociable Asian country with a score of 61.88. The identified community outreach includes the scope of personal relationships, community participation, and support for social networks. However, at this time the reality of the Indonesian nation has experienced a very concerning moral decadence. Noble morals such as honesty, truth, justice, helping each other, tepo seliro (tolerance), and loving one another have begun to be eroded by fraud, deception, hostility, oppression, dropping each other, fawning, taking other people's rights by force and at will, and other actions. -another despicable act. Moral decline or what we often hear with the term 'moral decadence' now has not only hit adults, but has also hit students who are the nation's next generation. Parents, teachers, and several parties involved in education, religion and social affairs have complained a lot about the behavior of some students who behave outside the limits of decency and decency, such as: drinking, brawls, drug abuse, promiscuity and free sex. hedonists and hippies in the West, and so on. The crisis of public mentality at this time is part of a multidimensional crisis, namely a problem experienced by the country where there are many problems in various aspects of life, which are faced especially among the community. The implementation of moral teachings in the public has begun to decline, so that in order to have good and good morals it is not enough for individuals to only carry out activities that are carried out followed by belief and understanding regarding the goodness that is implemented in this activity. Morality is a crucial issue to be studied in the current era of globalization. This becomes crucial when we look at the behavior of the people and the next generation of this nation which seems to have started to abandon positive moral values. Morality is a benchmark to determine the right and wrong of human attitudes and actions, seen from the good and bad side as humans and not as actors of certain roles. Thus, morals contain values and norms that are sourced from the human conscience. So to build good public morality, it is necessary to have a smart solution that is able to change the Indonesian people to become moral and have character. Indonesia as a state of law needs to strive to rebuild the morality of the nation's children through the law itself by implementing policies that can build the morality of the Indonesian people. The function of law is as a medium for regulating social interaction. In this arrangement, there are instructions on what to do, what to do and what not to do, in the hope that everything will run in an orderly and orderly manner. At the same time in the position of an orderly society, the law is used as a means to realize social justice, here the law is expected to be useful for people's lives. The community is protected, safe and comfortable. Law can also function as a driver of development, which can bring society in a more advanced direction. In addition, another legal function is to increase people's thinking power to become more critical. Therefore, this research has a goal, namely to understand the role of law in building public morality. Then, the discussion in this article is related to legal and moral theories to answer the relevant problems and have their validity tested. RESEARCH METHODS The research method used in this paper is the normative juridical method, which aims to the role of law in building community morality. This approach involves reviewing applicable laws and regulations, court decisions, and related legal literature to understand the legal principles underlying the role of law in building community morality. The data collected will be analyzed qualitatively, with a focus on the role of law in building community morality, in order to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the validity of legal arguments in the role of law in building community morality. DISCUSSION The Role of Law in Building Community Morality Functions of Law in Community Life Where there is society there is law (ubi societas ibi ius). Law exists in every society, whenever, wherever, and regardless of the circumstances of that society. it means that the existence of law is universal, apart from the existence of the law, it is greatly affected by the variety and color of the audience (law also has distinctive characteristics, according to the growth and changes that exist in an audience). In carrying out its role as a tool for regulating and social change, the law has the aim of implementing an orderly, peaceful, just audience that is encouraged through legal provisions so that individual and public needs can be maintained. Law has a regulatory nature because it contains a series of rules in commands and prohibitions that aim to regulate human behavior in the order of life in order to create order. That's why we as those who carry out the law must be really disciplined with the law, whether it's the law with humans or the law with the human creator. The law is formed to maintain the balance of the interests of the community, so as to create order and justice that can be felt by everyone in the community concerned. Even in the historical school it is stated that the whole law is actually formed through the habits and feelings of the people, namely through the secret operation of power. Law is rooted in history, where its roots are brought to life by the awareness, beliefs and habits of citizens. The law functions as the protection of human interests, so that their interests are protected, then the law should be implemented in real terms. The law functions as a regulator of peaceful social life. The law demands peace. Broadly speaking, the law functions to carry out social control, dispute settlement and social engineering or innovation. The function of the law as a means of social control, the law is tasked with keeping the community in the patterns of behavior that have been accepted by it. In this role, the law only maintains what has become something permanent and accepted in society or the law as a guardian of the status quo, but beyond that the law can still carry out other functions, namely with the aim of making changes in the environment. to the public After that, the role of law became a sign, by L.B. Curzon (to Achmad Ali, explained that what I meant by symbolic was "involving stages in which individuals simply take into account social correlations and other phenomena that arise through these interactions..." means simply related to social correlations and other symptoms that arise through it, their interactions with other individuals, such as in law, individuals who steal other individual goods intend to possess, through unlawful techniques, symbolized by criminal law as stealing activities that must be punished. Next, the function of law as a political tool, by Achmad Ali suggests that law (written law) as a political tool is universal. Moreover, it is associated with the function of law as a tool of social engineering, the role of political rulers over the law is very large. Likewise in our legal system in Indonesia, the law is a joint product between the people's representative council and the government. This fact is undeniable how all the politicians who pass the legislation . Meanwhile, according to Sukowati, the role of politics is to maintain and adapt the system, conversion and the role of capabilities. Relationship of Law and Morality Since ancient period, including in philosophy or theology, it is often debated whether something that is ordered is meant for good or because it is commanded to be good and vice versa whether something is not allowed because there is evil. Commands and prohibitions are rules in law, while good and bad are the moral values of an action. The existence of a law is basically realized in the context of creating a safe and peaceful life order in social life. Law is meaningless if it is not accompanied by ethics, so the quality of law is largely determined by moral quality. On the other hand, morality also requires law because morality will be in the air if it is not clearly expressed in society in the form of law. So, the law can increase the impact of morality. For example, respect for others is an important ethical principle, but not all ethics need to be translated into legal form because law must also be limited to regulating relevant human relations. In fact, morality and law are not always related because there are applicable laws (positive laws) that are contrary to ethics and therefore must be rejected. Leaving morals in judgment is tantamount to the law losing its soul. In Hart's view, the assertion that between law and morality there is a necessary or absolute relationship has many important understandings, but not all of these relationships are clearly visible. Departing from this obscurity Hart seeks to demonstrate and evaluate the reasons underlying this view. According to him, none of the reasons put forward to show the absolute relationship is adequate although he admits that some aspects of the arguments put forward have truth, in accordance with some facts that can be found in the legal system. Hart recognizes that law, justice, and morals have a very close relationship. Even one aspect of justice, namely administrative justice, and in the minimum natural law, law and morality are absolutely related. Administrative justice referred to here is nothing but justice in the application of law. The application of punishment to a person is based solely on the characteristics stated in the law. The law on murder, for example, stipulates that a person who intentionally takes the life of another person is sentenced to fifteen years, so from this provision we will know which characteristics are relevant and irrelevant to punish the perpetrators of murder. The perpetrator's skin color and hair type are irrelevant; while the person's decisions or intentions are relevant. If in deciding a particular case the characteristics mentioned in the law are ignored, then the application of the punishment is considered unfair. Justice in the application of this law according to Hart has an absolute relationship with the law. However, this absolute relationship only concerns the administration of law and this type of justice can also occur in a legal system which is full of unfair laws. Characteristics of a Moral Society Pestalozzi views humans as moral beings. Morality is the achievement of the human will, the result of good character triumphing over self-interested feelings. To grow morally, we must feel deeply. In other words, an action or behavior can be said to be moral to the extent that the action or behavior is carried out because it is forced by social customs or state law, but from a personal decision. Rousseau was a profound influence on Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel. Pestalozzi followed Rousseau in his "recommendation" that children be educated using the senses. Pestalozzi reworked Rousseau's thinking, following Locke and calling it an "object lesson". Pestalozzi views humans as moral beings. Morality is the achievement of the human will, the result of good character triumphing over self-interested feelings. To grow morally, we must feel deeply. In other words, an action or behavior can be said to be moral to the extent that the action or behavior is carried out because it is forced by social customs or state law, but from a personal decision. Rousseau was a profound influence on Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel. Pestalozzi followed Rousseau in his "recommendation" that children be educated using the senses. Pestalozzi reworked Rousseau's thinking, following Locke and calling it an "object lesson". Application of Law in Society Law enforcement is an attempt to bring ideas and concepts into reality. Law enforcement is a process to make legal wishes come true. What are called legal desires here are none other than the thoughts of making laws that are formulated in the legal regulations. The implementation of law in society, apart from depending on the legal awareness of the community, is also very much determined by law enforcement officers, because it often happens that some legal regulations cannot be implemented properly because there are several law enforcement officers who do not carry out a legal provision as it should. This is due to the implementation by law enforcement itself which is not appropriate and is a bad example and can degrade the image. In addition, good examples and the integrity and morality of law enforcement officers must absolutely be good, because they are very vulnerable and open to opportunities for bribery and abuse of authority. Money can affect the investigation process, prosecution process and the decision handed down. The discussion about the law enforcement process also extends to the making of laws. The formulation of the thoughts of the creators of the legislation described in the laws and regulations then determines how to enforce the law is implemented, while good law is created by taking into account the various needs that exist in the public, including public, national, and individual and state needs. personal. Thus, the formation of law must seek to balance these various interests. The main public interest is the interest of the state to protect the existence and nature of the state and the interest to monitor and promote social welfare. In people's lives there are always various kinds of norms that directly or indirectly affect the procedures for behaving or acting. The norms that are deeply felt in human life are customary norms, religious norms, moral norms and legal norms. The law of life in society can force people to obey the rules in society and provide strict sanctions (in the form of punishment) for anyone who violates and does not obey it. The purpose of the law itself is to ensure the continuity of balance in the relationship between members of the community. Good law is formed by considering the various interests that exist in society, both public interests (including the main one is the interest of the state), individual interests and personal interests. Thus, the formation of law must seek to balance these various interests. The main public interest is the interest of the state to protect the existence and nature of the state and the interest to monitor and promote social welfare. The formation of law must pay attention to the living law. There is a balance between written law and unwritten law. The development of law is strongly influenced by ideological, political, social, and cultural conditions. So, it's not just the government's wish. Efforts to Grow Community Morality with Law Law, which is seen as one of the important aspects in society that aims to realize the formation of a comfortable and just society, is sometimes ignored by a few people. Not infrequently the law is injured, violated, or even manipulated its function by people who do have an interest, or people who still consider the importance of a law that exists in society. These people are people who are not aware and do not obey the law. The role of public legal awareness as the purpose of the law itself is to guarantee certainty and justice. In the life of the community, there is always a difference between the patterns of behavior or behavior that apply in society and the patterns of behavior desired by legal norms (rules). This can lead to a problem in the form of social inequality so that at certain times conflicts and social tensions tend to occur which of course can disrupt the course of community change in the desired direction. This condition occurs because the law that is built can be a guide (principle) to act for the public, there may be legal awareness, to a tendency to obey the law. A sense of legal awareness in the public needs to be created and implemented so that the public is more obedient to the existing laws, including written or written laws that appear and grow in the audience and their existence is recognized through the audience. Legal awareness According to the KBBI, it is an individual's awareness of the insight that an action is specifically regulated by legislation . Legal awareness at a particular point, it is desired to be able to provide individual encouragement to obey and carry out or not carry out what is prohibited and or ordered through legislation. Thus, the growth of legal awareness becomes a crucial component in efforts to implement law enforcement. For Ewick and Silbey, "legal consciousness" is formed in action and is therefore a matter of practice to be studied empirically. In other words, legal awareness is a matter of "law as behavior", and not "law as a rule, norm or principle". The formation of a law-aware and law-abiding society is the ideal of the existence of norms that want a just society so that the joints of community culture will develop towards the creation of a community system that respects one another, making people aware of the law and obeying the law is not something easy by turning the palm of the hand hand, much must be sought by the founders or thinkers of this country to think about this. Law is not the only thing that functions to make people aware of the law and obey the law, Indonesia, which incidentally is a very heterogeneous country, seems to be in forming a positive legal formulation somewhat different from countries whose culture is homogeneous, it is very important before forming a law that will regulate the journey of society, it must be Excavated about the philosophy of law in a more comprehensive manner that will realize real justice for all groups, ethnicities, races, religions in Indonesia. Basically, law enforcement in Indonesia must include three very basic important aspects, namely: the culture of the community where legal values will be enforced, the structure of the law enforcement itself, and the substance of the law to be enforced. Building legal awareness is not easy, not everyone has that awareness. Law as a social phenomenon is an institution and control of society. In society, various institutions are found, each of which is needed in the community to meet their needs and facilitate the fulfillment of these needs, because of its function, the community needs the presence of institutions as an understanding of legal awareness. CONCLUSION The Indonesian nation is a nation that has long been known as a nation that highly upholds eastern customs with its polite, friendly and civilized morality. However, at this time the reality of the Indonesian nation has experienced a very concerning moral degradation. This is evident in the number of cases that have occurred, such as brawls between students, theft, robbery, rape, free sex, alcohol, drugs and the current trend of mushrooming corruption in almost all state institutions. Indonesia as a state of law needs to strive to rebuild the morality of the nation's children through the law itself by creating a law-abiding legal culture, increasing legal awareness, and seeking the implementation of policies that can build the morality of the Indonesian people. The law is formed to maintain the balance of the interests of the community, so as to create order and justice that can be felt by everyone in the community concerned. Meanwhile, the role of law in building the morality of society is to guarantee certainty and justice, in people's lives there is always a difference between the patterns of behavior or behavior prevailing in society and the patterns of behavior desired by the norms (rules) of law. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Achmad, Ali. "Menguak Teori Hukum (Legal Theory) Dan Teori Peradilan (Judicial Prudence) Termasuk Interprestasi Undang-Undang." Legisprudence, 2009, 511. 2. Alaby, Muhammad Awin. 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  57. ^ "Титульные гербы". www.heraldicum.ru.
  58. ^ RUSSIAN: "По этнокультурному определению буртас в результате двухсотлетнего изучения сложилось множество точек зрения, которые можно объединить в 3 основные: тюркская, аланская и мордовская (наименее распространённая)." Буртасы//Ислам в центрально-европейской части России: энциклопедический словарь / Коллект. автор; сост. и отв. редактор Д. З. Хайретдинов. — М.: Издательский дом «Медина», 2009, С.55. ENGLISH: "According to the ethnocultural definition of Burtas, as a result of two hundred years of study, many points of view have developed that can be combined into 3 main ones: Turkic, Alanian and Mordovian (the least common)." Burtases//Islam in the Central European part of Russia: an encyclopedic dictionary / Collect. author; comp. and otv. editor D.Z. Khairetdinov. - M .: Publishing house "Medina", 2009, p. 55.
  59. ^ "Volga Bulgaria". Chuvash Encyclopedia. Chuvash Institute of Humanities. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
  60. ^ К вопросу о происхождении самоназвания бесермян УДМУРТОЛОГИЯ
  61. ^ R. Frye, 2005. "Ibn Fadlan's journey to Russia"
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