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Elections in Chile

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Elections in Chile are held countrywide, including the presidency, parliament, regional offices, and municipal positions. Chilean citizens and foreign residents with legal residency of at least five years, who are 18 years or older on election day, are eligible to vote. Previously, voting was voluntary, but since 2023, it has become compulsory.

Presidential elections are held to select the chief of state and head of government for a four-year term, allowing for non-consecutive re-election. Candidates can be nominated by political parties or run as independent candidates, requiring a specific number of signatures. Parliamentary elections follow a system of proportional representation, and the country's bicameral Congress consists of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate. The electoral system for parliamentary elections underwent reforms in 2017, which changed the number of electoral districts and senatorial constituencies.

Regional and municipal elections also occur, with direct elections determining regional boards and mayors. Referendums, both national and local, are part of Chile's electoral system. The country conducts primaries, both legal and extralegal, to select candidates for various positions. The voting process is conducted in-person and requires a national identity card or passport.

The independent Electoral Service (Servicio Electoral or Servel) oversees the electoral process, with the winners being declared by the Election Certification Tribunal.

Schedule

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Election

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Position 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Type Mayoral primaries (19 June)
Municipal (23 October)		 Presidential and parliamentary primaries (2 July)
Presidential (19 November)
National Congress (19 November)
Regional Boards (19 November)		 None National plebiscite (25 October)
Mayoral and governor primaries (29 November) 		Municipal (15-16 May)
Regional governor (15-16 May)
Constitutional Convention (15-16 May)
Presidential and parliamentary primaries (18 July)
Presidential (21 November)
National Congress (21 November)
Regional Boards (21 November)
President None President None President
National Congress None Full Chamber and half of Senate None Full Chamber and half of Senate
Regions and provinces None Regional Boards None Regional Governors
Regional Boards
Municipalities Mayors and Councilors None Mayors and Councilors

Inauguration

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Position 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Type Municipal None Presidential
National Congress
Regional Boards		 None None Regional governor
Municipal
Constitutional Convention		 Presidential
National Congress
Regional Boards
President None None 11 March None 11 March
National Congress None None 11 March None 11 March
Regions None None 11 March None None 14 July 11 March
Municipalities 6 December None None None None 28 June None
Constitutional Convention None None None None None 4 July None

Electorate

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Citizens of Chile and foreign residents with legal residency of at least five years, who are 18 years or older on election day, are eligible to vote. All eligible citizens are automatically registered,[1] and voting is compulsory. Between 2012 and 2023, voting was voluntary. Since 2014, Chileans have been able to vote overseas in presidential elections (including primaries) and referendums.[2]

Presidential elections

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For the most recent presidential election, see 2021 Chilean presidential election.

Presidential elections elect a president who serves as the chief of state and head of government for a period of four years.[3] Non-consecutive re-election is permitted.[3]

The president is directly elected by an absolute majority of valid votes (excluding null and blank votes). If no candidate obtains such a majority, a runoff election is held between the two candidates with the most votes.[3] Before 1989, the president was confirmed by Congress if elected by a simple majority.

Each legally operating political party may nominate one of its members as a candidate. Independent candidates must gain the support of a number of independent electors before registering their candidacy. The number of signatures needed is equal to at least 0.5% of the number of people who voted in the most recent Chamber of Deputies election.[4] For the 2013 election, the number was 36,318 signatures.[5]

According to the Constitution, presidential elections take place on the third Sunday of November in the year before the current president's term expires. If necessary, a runoff election is held on the fourth Sunday following the first election. The president is sworn in on the day the incumbent president's term expires.[3]

Before 2011, presidential elections were held 90 days before the current president's term expired. If that day was not a Sunday, the election was moved to the following Sunday. If required , a runoff election was held 30 days after the first election, following the Sunday rule. Since 1990, the president has taken office on March 11, so elections were held on or after December 11 of the previous year.

Parliamentary elections

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For the most recent parliamentary election, see 2021 Chilean general election.

Chile has a bicameral National Congress consisting of the Chamber of Deputies (lower house) and the Senate (upper house).[3] The Chamber of Deputies comprises 155 members elected from 28 multi-member districts, while the Senate consists of 50 members elected from 16 constituencies, each corresponding to a region.[4] Each district elects between three and eight deputies, and each region elects between two and five senators. Seats are allocated using the D'Hondt method.

Deputies serve four-year terms and may be re-elected consecutively for up to two additional terms. Senators serve eight-year terms and may be re-elected consecutively for one additional term. Senate elections are staggered, with half of the seats contested every four years.[3] Following the return to democracy in 1990, senators from odd-numbered regions initially served four-year terms (1990–1994), while those from even-numbered regions and the Santiago Metropolitan Region served full eight-year terms (1990–1998).

According to the Constitution, parliamentary elections are held concurrently with presidential elections.[3]

Candidacy and electoral alliances

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Candidates may be nominated either by political parties or by groups of independent citizens. Candidates nominated by political parties must have been affiliated with that party for at least two months prior to registration and must not have been affiliated with a different party within the previous nine months. Candidates backed by independent citizens must not have been affiliated with any political party during the year before the election and must collect signatures from independent voters equivalent to at least 0.5% of the total votes cast in the relevant district or constituency in the previous election.[4]

Two or more parties may form an electoral alliance, or pact, and jointly nominate candidates in each district or constituency. These candidates do not need to be affiliated with any of the member parties but may not belong to a party outside the pact.[4] Both pacts and parties running outside of pacts may nominate up to one more candidate than the number of seats to be filled in each district or constituency.[4]

Electoral system prior to 2017

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Until 2017, Chile's electoral system featured 60 districts for the Chamber of Deputies and 19 senatorial constituencies, each electing exactly two representatives,[4] totaling 120 deputies and 38 senators. Chile was unique in applying the D'Hondt method nationwide to uniformly two-seat divisions.[6][7][8] In each electoral district or constituency, the two entities with the most votes—whether pacts, parties, or independent candidates—each won one seat. To claim both seats, the leading entity needed at least twice as many votes as the runner-up.[4]

A 2015 reform law reorganized electoral divisions, reducing the number of districts and aligning senatorial constituencies with regional boundaries. This new system was implemented in the 2017 general elections[9] and significantly altered Congress's composition.[10]

Criticism

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See also: Gerrymandering § Chile

The binomial voting system was introduced by the military dictatorship that governed Chile until 1990. It replaced the proportional representation system used until 1973 and limited each electoral division to two seats. District boundaries were drawn to favor right-leaning parties, often benefiting rural areas with greater support for the Pinochet regime. Vote-to-seat disparities were especially pronounced in districts where the regime had received lower support in the 1988 plebiscite.[11]

Changing the system was made difficult by constitutional provisions requiring a three-fifths majority in both houses of Congress.[3] Critics, particularly from the Concert of Parties for Democracy, argued that the system distorted representation by undercutting majorities and amplifying right-wing presence.[12] Supporters on the right defended the system as a stabilizing force[13][14] that encouraged broad coalitions.[15] The left criticized it as undemocratic,[14] excluding parties and candidates outside the two main blocs.[6]

Regional elections

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Each region in Chile is governed by a directly-elected regional governor (gobernador regional), chosen through a two-round election, unless a candidate secures a minimum of 40% of the vote in the initial round. The governor is supported by a board consisting of regional advisors (consejeros regionales or Cores), who are also elected directly.

The regional governor serves a four-year term with the possibility of one immediate reelection. Advisors serve four-year terms and are restricted to two consecutive reelections. The number of advisors is proportional to the region's population and area in relation to the country.[3]

The position of regional governor was first directly elected in May 2021. Prior to that, the regional government was led by an Intendant (Intendente), appointed by the President of the Republic. Regional advisors were first directly elected in November 2013.

Electoral reform

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In October 2009, the Constitution was modified to allow regional advisors to be elected directly through universal suffrage.[3] In June 2013, a law regulated the direct election of regional advisors.[16] Previously, regional advisors were elected by municipal council members in each region, forming electoral colleges for each provincial region. Each region was allocated two advisors per province, with an additional 10 advisors in regions with up to 1 million inhabitants or 14 more in regions with over 1 million residents. These additional advisors were distributed among provinces based on their proportion of the regional population in the latest census, using the D'Hondt method. The candidate who received the most votes within each province was declared the winner. However, if two or more candidates ran as a list within a province, the winners were determined using the D'Hondt method.[17] Advisors served four-year terms and could be reelected indefinitely. Elections took place 15 days after the council members took office, and the newly elected advisors were sworn in 60 days after their election.[17]

In December 2012, a temporary article was added to the Constitution, suspending the election scheduled for December 21, 2012, and extending the mandate of the incumbent advisors to March 11, 2014. The same article stated that the advisors' first direct election would take place on November 17, 2013, coinciding with the presidential and parliamentary elections, provided that the necessary changes to the law were published before July 20, 2013.[18]

In January 2017, the Constitution was modified to allow for the direct election of the regional governor.[19] In February 2018, a law regulated the direct election of regional governors, stating that they would be elected at the same time as mayors, councilors, and regional boards.[20] However, the regional boards would only be elected simultaneously with these offices in October 2024, maintaining the current schedule, which stated that the next regional board elections would take place in November 2021, along with the presidential and parliamentary elections.[21]

Municipal elections

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For the last municipal election, see 2016 Chilean municipal election.

Voters directly elect one mayor and a number of councilors per municipality.[3] Mayors are elected by a simple majority, while councilor seats (ranging from 6 to 10, depending on the municipality's registered voters) are decided using proportional representation,[22] similar to the D'Hondt method. Since 2004, mayors and councilors have been elected in separate ballots.

According to the Constitution, councilors have four-year mandates and can be reelected indefinitely.[3] Mayors also have a four-year mandate and can be reelected indefinitely, as set by the law. The election of mayors and councilors takes place on the last Sunday of October, and they take office on December 6 of that year.[22]

The last election was held on October 23, 2016 (moved from its original date of October 30 to avoid conflicting with a four-day holiday),[23] and the next election is scheduled for October 25, 2020.

Referendums

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National

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Main article: National referendums in Chile

The Constitution provides for binding referendums (plebiscito) only in the case where a constitutional reform passed by Congress is completely vetoed by the President and then confirmed by Congress by a two-thirds majority of each chamber. In such an occurrence, the President has the authority to either sign the reform into law or call for a referendum.[3] To date, the President has not exercised this power.

Communal

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The Constitution allows municipalities to hold binding referendums to address various local issues.[3] Referendums can be initiated by the mayor with council approval, by a two-thirds majority of council members, or by residents who represent 10% of the total voter turnout in the most recent municipal election.[22]

To date, only one such referendum has taken place. It was held in Peñalolén on December 11, 2011, and was used to determine a new zoning plan for the commune.[24]

Primaries

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For the last presidential primary, see 2017 Chilean presidential primaries.
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There is a system of government-run primaries to select candidates for president, senator, deputy, and mayor. The primaries for president, senator, and deputy are held concurrently.[25]

Primaries can take place within a single political party or within a group of parties, known as a "pact." Independent candidates may participate in primaries with the backing of a political party or a pact. However, independents are not eligible to be candidates in primaries for congressional seats if the political party supporting the candidate is not part of a pact. Political parties may form separate pacts for presidential and parliamentary primaries. Political parties and pacts are free to decide whether to allow independent electors or electors affiliated with other political parties to participate in their primaries. However, independent electors must be allowed to vote in a presidential primary that includes an independent candidate.[25]

According to the Constitution, primary results are legally binding for political parties that use them. Candidates who lose in the primaries are ineligible to run for the same office in the general election,[3] unless the winning candidate dies or resigns before the registration deadline.[25]

The law states that primaries take place on the twentieth Sunday before the election.[25] The first legal primaries for president and deputy took place on June 30, 2013, and the first legal mayoral primaries took place on June 19, 2016.

Extralegal primaries

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Presidential

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The Concertación coalition selected its candidate for President of the Republic through primaries in 1993, 1999, and 2009 (in 2005, they were canceled after one of two contenders quit the race). The Juntos Podemos pact selected its presidential candidate in a primary in 2009.

Parliamentary

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Throughout 2013, the Concertación parties organized primaries to select some of their candidates for seats in Congress.

Mayoral

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The Concertación organized primary elections on April 1, 2012, in over 40% of communes to select its candidates for mayor for the October 28, 2012 municipal election.[26][27]

Voting

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Ballots used in the 2009 parliamentary and presidential elections.

For Chileans, the only document required to vote is a national identity card that is current up to a year before the election or a current passport. Foreigners must present their identity cards in order to vote. The voting process is secret and in-person.[3] Before voting, a voter must present their identity card or passport to verify their registration at the polling place, then sign the registration book. The voter will then receive the ballot(s) with the names, numbers, and party affiliations of all candidates, and go to a voting booth. Using a provided graphite pencil, the voter marks their choices by drawing a vertical line over the printed horizontal line next to the chosen candidate. Marking two or more choices nullifies the vote, and if no candidate is marked, the vote is considered "blank." After marking the ballot(s), the voter returns them to the polling officer, who removes the serial number, and the voter places them in the appropriate ballot box(es). Finally, the voter's national identity card/passport is returned to them.[4]

Most polling places are located in schools or sporting centers, and security is provided by the armed forces and uniformed police (Carabineros) before, during, and after the elections.[3] Since 2012, polling stations have been mixed-sex.[28]

Suffrage

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The state of suffrage in Chile since 1833:

  • From 1833: Men over 25, if single, or 21, if married, able to read and write, and owning property or capital of a certain value fixed by law. (Art. 8 of the 1833 Constitution)
    • The 1884 Election Law drops the ownership requirement for men and explicitly bans women from being registered.[29]
  • From 1925: Men over 21 able to read and write. (Art. 7 of the 1925 Constitution)
    • From 1934: Men over 21 able to read and write (general registry); women over 25 able to read and write (municipal registry, i.e., limited to local elections). (Law No. 5,357)
    • From 1949: Men and women over 21 able to read and write. (Law No. 9,292)
  • From 1970 until today: Men and women over 18. (Law No. 17,284 modifying Art. 7 of the 1925 Constitution; Art. 13 of the 1980 Constitution)

No Chilean Constitution has ever explicitly prohibited women from voting. The term "chilenos" used in various constitutions to refer to those with the right to vote means both "Chilean men" and "Chilean people," so no constitutional amendment was necessary to grant women the right to vote.

Turnout

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Election turnout since 1925.

Note: Since 2017, enrollment and turnout figures for presidential elections, presidential primaries and plebiscites include voters from abroad.
Date Election VAP1 Registered2 % Turnout3 % T / VAP %4
1925-10-24 President — 302,142 — — 86.4 —
1927-05-22 President — 328,700 — — 70.4 —
1931-10-04 President — 388,959 — — 73.5 —
1932-10-30 President — 464,879 — — 74.0 —
1938-10-25 President — 503,871 — — 88.1 —
1942-02-02 President — 581,486 — — 80.2 —
1946-09-04 President — 631,257 — — 75.9 —
1952-09-04 President 3,290,043 1,105,029 33.59 — 86.6 29.1
1953-03-01 Legislative 3,319,987 1,106,709 33.33 — 68.6 22.9
1957-03-03 Legislative 3,560,495 1,284,159 36.07 — 70.5 25.4
1958-09-04 President 3,649,924 1,497,902 41.04 — 83.5 34.3
1961-03-12 Legislative 3,815,496 1,858,980 48.72 — 74.5 36.3
1964-09-04 President 4,098,612 2,915,121 71.12 — 86.8 61.7
1965-03-14 Legislative 4,145,932 2,920,615 70.45 — 80.6 56.8
1969-03-16 Legislative 4,518,768 3,244,892 71.81 — 74.2 53.3
1970-09-04 President 5,200,790 3,539,747 68.06 2,954,799 83.47 56.81
1971-04-01 Municipal[citation needed] — 3,792,682 — 2,835,412 — —
1973-03-11 Legislative 5,514,216 4,509,559 81.78 3,687,105 81.8 66.9
1988-10-05 Plebiscite 8,193,683 7,435,913 90.75 7,251,933 97.53 88.51
1989-07-30 Plebiscite 8,344,555 7,556,613 90.56 7,082,084 93.72 84.87
1989-12-14 Chamber of Deputies 8,414,203 7,557,537 89.82 7,158,646 94.72 85.08
1989-12-14 Senate 8,414,203 7,557,537 89.82 7,158,442 94.72 85.08
1989-12-14 President 8,414,203 7,557,537 89.82 7,158,727 94.72 85.08
1992-06-28 Municipal 8,902,989 7,840,008 88.06 7,043,827 89.84 79.12
1993-12-11 Chamber of Deputies 9,172,608 8,085,439 88.15 7,385,016 91.34 80.51
1993-12-11 Senate — — — 2,045,681 — —
1993-12-11 President 9,172,608 8,085,439 88.15 7,387,709 91.37 80.54
1996-10-27 Municipal 9,670,815 8,073,368 83.48 7,079,418 87.69 73.20
1997-12-14 Chamber of Deputies 9,868,810 8,069,624 81.77 7,046,351 87.32 71.40
1997-12-14 Senate — — — 5,102,906 — —
1999-12-12 President 10,237,392 8,084,476 78.97 7,271,584 89.95 71.03
2000-01-16 President-Runoff 10,237,392 8,084,476 78.97 7,326,753 90.63 71.57
2000-10-29 Municipal 10,409,834 8,089,363 77.71 7,089,886 87.64 68.11
2001-12-16 Chamber of Deputies 10,640,846 8,075,446 75.89 7,034,292 87.11 66.11
2001-12-16 Senate — — — 1,975,017 — —
2004-10-31 Council people 11,233,815 8,012,065 71.32 6,874,315 85.80 61.19
2004-10-31 Mayors 11,233,815 8,012,065 71.32 6,872,675 85.78 61.18
2005-12-11 Chamber of Deputies 11,471,909 8,220,897 71.66 7,207,351 87.67 62.83
2005-12-11 Senate — 5,863,704 — 5,182,224 88.38 —
2005-12-11 President 11,471,909 8,220,897 71.66 7,207,278 87.67 62.83
2006-01-15 President-Runoff 11,471,909 8,220,897 71.66 7,162,345 87.12 62.43
2008-10-26 Council people 12,095,757 8,110,265 67.05 6,950,508 85.70 57.46
2008-10-26 Mayors 12,095,757 8,110,265 67.05 6,959,075 85.81 57.53
2009-12-13 Chamber of Deputies 12,345,729 8,285,186 67.11 7,263,537 87.67 58.83
2009-12-13 Senate — 2,392,477 — 2,053,480 85.83 —
2009-12-13 President 12,345,729 8,285,186 67.11 7,264,136 87.68 58.84
2010-01-17 President-Runoff 12,345,729 8,285,186 67.11 7,203,371 86.94 58.35
2012-10-28 Council people 12,953,120 13,404,084 103.48 5,770,423 43.05 44.55
2012-10-28 Mayors 12,953,120 13,404,084 103.48 5,790,617 43.20 44.70
2013-06-30 Presidential primaries 13,087,161 13,307,182a 101.68 3,010,890 22.63 23.01
2013-06-30 Lower-chamber primariesb — — — 300,839 — —
2013-11-17 Regional boards 13,160,122 13,573,143 103.14 6,685,333 49.25 50.80
2013-11-17 Chamber of Deputies 13,160,122 13,573,143 103.14 6,698,524 49.35 50.90
2013-11-17 Senate — 9,770,063 — 4,852,165 49.66 —
2013-11-17 President 13,160,122 13,573,143 103.14 6,699,011 49.35 50.90
2013-12-15 President-Runoff 13,160,122 13,573,143 103.14 5,697,751 41.98 43.30
2016-06-19 Mayoral primariesc 5,154,006 5,067,812d 98.33 280,481 5.53 5.44
2016-10-23 Council people 13,678,149 14,121,316 103.24 4,915,436 34.81 35.94
2016-10-23 Mayors 13,678,149 14,121,316 103.24 4,926,935 34.89 36.02
2017-07-02 Presidential primaries 13,790,520 13,531,553h 98.12 1.813.688 13.40 13.15
2017-07-02 Lower-chamber primariesj — 3,541,669k — 418,336 11.81 —
2017-11-19 Regional boards 14,009,047 14,347,288 102.41 6,674,828 46.52 47.65
2017-11-19 Chamber of Deputies 14,009,047 14,347,288 102.41 6,673,831 46.52 47.64
2017-11-19 Senate — 3,992,804 — 1,819,045 45.56 —
2017-11-19 President 14,009,047 14,347,288 102.41 6,703,327 46.72 47.85
2017-12-17 President-Runoff 14,022,729 14,347,288 102.41 7,032,878 49.02 50.15
2020-10-25 Plebiscite (new constitution) 15,052,382 14,855,719 98.69 7,573,914 50.98 50.32
2020-10-25 Plebiscite (drafting body) 15,052,382 14,855,719 98.69 7,573,124 50.98 50.31
2020-11-29 Gubernatorial primaries 15,073,334 14,470,550 96.00 418,685o 2.89 2.78
2020-11-29 Mayoral primariesn — 3,379,521 — 147,608p 4.37 —
2021-05-16 Convention Constituents 15,173,902 14,900,190 98.20 6,473,057 43.44 42.66
2021-05-16 Regional governors 15,173,902 14,900,190 98.20 6,472,470 43.44 42.66
2021-05-16 Mayors 15,173,902 14,900,190 98.20 6,471,476m 43.43 42.65
2021-05-16 Council people 15,173,902 14,900,190 98.20 6,460,836m 43.36 42.58
2021-06-13 Regional governors (runoff)q — 13,040,819 — 2,558,962r 19.62 —
2021-07-18 Presidential primaries — 14,693,433 — 3,141,404 21.38 —
Date Election VAP1 Registered2 % Turnout3 % T / VAP %4

Notes: a Excludes 200,638 affiliates from non-participating political parties. b Held in 10 out of 60 electoral districts. c Held in 93 out of 346 communes. d Excludes affiliates from non-participating political parties. h Excludes 273,017 affiliates and 445,722 'pending' affiliates from non-participating political parties,[30] and 21,270 electors from abroad.[31] j Held in 7 out of 28 electoral districts.[32] k Excludes affiliates and 'pending' affiliates from non-participating political parties. m Revised provisional results. n Held in 36 out of 346 communes. o Provisional results including 99.91% of ballot boxes. p Provisional results including 99.84% of ballot boxes. q Held in 13 out of 16 regions. r Provisional results including 99.99% of ballot boxes.

  • ^ Voting Age Population: An estimation of the country's population over the age of 21 (1952–1969) and 18 (1970–2013) on the day of the election. Source: "Annual Population by Age - Both Sexes". World Population Prospects, the 2012 Revision. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, Population Estimates and Projections Section. 13 June 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2013. Note: The UN provides data estimated for July 1 of each year disaggregated by age. Linear interpolation was applied to obtain the population for election day. For 2016 mayoral primaries and 19 November 2017 elections: COMUNAS: ACTUALIZACIÓN POBLACIÓN 2002-2012 Y PROYECCIONES 2013-2020, National Statistics Institute of Chile. For 2020 elections: Estimaciones y proyecciones 1992-2050, país, National Statistics Institute of Chile. Note: VAP is for June 30.
  • ^ Source: Electoral Service (1925-1973; 1988-2010; 2012[permanent dead link]; 2013; 2016 (primaries); 2016 (municipal); 2017 (presidential primaries); 2017 (lower-chamber primaries and 19 November 2017 elections); 2021 (regional governors)).
  • ^ Source: Electoral Service (1925-1969 and 1973 as a percentage only; 1970;[33][34] 1988-2012; 2013 (primaries); 2013 (regional boards)[permanent dead link]; 2013 (deputies); 2013 (Senate)[permanent dead link]; 2013 (president); 2016 (primaries); 2016 (municipal); 2017). Values for 1952–1969 and 1973 derived from columns 3, 4 and 7.
  • ^ Turnout as a percentage of the voting age population.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Barnes, Tiffany D.; Rangel, Gabriela (December 2014). "Election Law Reform in Chile: The Implementation of Automatic Registration and Voluntary Voting". Election Law Journal: Rules, Politics, and Policy. 13 (4): 570–582. doi:10.1089/elj.2013.0205. ISSN 1533-1296.
  2. ^ "LEY-20748 03-MAY-2014 MINISTERIO SECRETARÍA GENERAL DE LA PRESIDENCIA - Ley Chile - Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional". leychile.cl. 3 May 2014.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile. Chile Library of National Congress.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h Organic Constitutional Law on Popular Elections and Vote Counting. Chile Library of National Congress.
  5. ^ "Con número récord de candidatos presidenciales Servel cierra inscripciones". latercera.com.
  6. ^ a b Carey, John M (2009). "Ingeniería electoral: ¿qué nos muestran las investigaciones académicas sobre los efectos anticipados de las reformas electorales?" [Electoral engineering: What does academic research show us about the anticipated effects of electoral reforms?]. Fortalecimiento de la Democracia: Reforma del Sistema Electoral Chileno / Chapter 8 (in Spanish). p. 234. Retrieved 2011-12-25.
  7. ^ Altman, David (2004). "Redibujando el Mapa Electoral Chileno: Incidencia de Factores Socioeconómicos y Género en las Urnas" (PDF). Revista de Ciencia Política / Vol. XXIV / Nº 2. Instituto de Ciencia Política, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-07. Retrieved 2010-12-22.
  8. ^ Fuentes S., Claudio and Marcela Ríos T. (January 2007). Una reforma necesaria: Efectos del sistema binominal [A Necessary Reform: Effects of the Binomial System] (in Spanish) (2nd ed.). Santiago. pp. 17, 32. ISBN 978-956-205-215-3. Archived from the original on 2012-04-23. Retrieved 2011-10-23. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  9. ^ "LEY-20840 05-MAY-2015 MINISTERIO DEL INTERIOR Y SEGURIDAD PÚBLICA - Ley Chile - Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional". leychile.cl. 5 May 2015.
  10. ^ Sajuria, Javier. "Analysis | Chile just went to the polls — and transformed its legislature". Washington Post. Retrieved 2020-07-11.
  11. ^ Valenzuela, Arturo and Peter Siavelis (1991). "Ley electoral y estabilidad democrática: Un ejercicio de simulación para el caso de Chile" (PDF). Estudios Públicos Nº 43 (in Spanish). Santiago: Centro de Estudios Públicos. p. 39. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-19. Retrieved 2011-12-29.
  12. ^ Carey, John M. (2006). "Las virtudes del sistema binominal" [The Virtues of the Binomial System]. Revista de Ciencia Política / Vol. 26 / Nº 1 (in Spanish). Santiago. pp. 226–235. ISSN 0718-090X. Retrieved 2011-11-26.
  13. ^ "Coloma defiende el sistema binominal: "Ha dado estabilidad a Chile"". Emol.com. Retrieved 2011-10-27.
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  34. ^ "B. El Congreso Nacional y la quiebra de un deber constitucional: el control del ejercicio constitucional de las funciones del presidente". Revista Chilena de Derecho Vol. 1, No. 3/4 (Junio-agosto 1974), pp. 491-547 (in Spanish). 1 (3/4): 491–547. 1974. JSTOR 41605133.
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