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Wisdom

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"Sapience" redirects here. Not to be confused with Sentience.
For other uses, see Wisdom (disambiguation).
Luca Giordano: The Dream of Solomon: God promises Solomon wisdom
Solomon's Wisdom, 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld

Wisdom is the ability to apply knowledge, experience, and good judgment to navigate life’s complexities. It is often associated with insight, discernment, and ethics in decision-making. Throughout history, wisdom has been regarded as a key virtue in philosophy, religion, and psychology, representing the ability to understand and respond to reality in a balanced and thoughtful manner. Unlike intelligence, which primarily concerns problem-solving and reasoning, wisdom involves a deeper comprehension of human nature, moral principles, and the long-term consequences of actions.

Philosophically, wisdom has been explored by thinkers from Ancient Greece to modern times. Socrates famously equated wisdom with recognizing one’s own ignorance, while Aristotle saw it as practical reasoning (phronesis) and deep contemplation (sophia). Eastern traditions, such as Confucianism and Buddhism, emphasize wisdom as a form of enlightened understanding that leads to ethical living and inner peace. Across cultures, wisdom is often linked to virtues like humility, patience, and compassion, suggesting that it is not just about knowing what is right but also acting upon it.

Psychologists study wisdom as a cognitive and emotional trait, often linking it to maturity, emotional regulation, and the ability to consider multiple perspectives. Research suggests that wisdom is associated with qualities such as open-mindedness, empathy, and the ability to manage uncertainty. Some psychological models, such as the Berlin Wisdom Paradigm and Robert Sternberg's Balance Theory, attempt to define and measure wisdom through various cognitive and social factors. Neuroscience studies also explore how brain structures related to emotional processing and long-term thinking contribute to wise decision-making.

Wisdom continues to be a subject of interest in modern society, influencing fields as diverse as leadership, education, and personal development. While technology provides greater access to information, it does not necessarily lead to wisdom, which requires careful reflection and ethical consideration. As artificial intelligence and data-driven decision-making play a growing role in shaping human life, discussions on wisdom remain relevant, emphasizing the importance of judgment, ethical responsibility, and long-term planning in an increasingly complex world.

Overview

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Wisdom has been defined in many different ways,[1][2] and there are several distinct approaches to assessing the characteristics attributed to wisdom.[3][4]

Wise ones understand human nature.[5] Wisdom is a phronesis of the human condition.[6] Wisdom is a worldview.[7] Wisdom is having excellent judgement of human affairs.[8] Wisdom is insight, use of ideals, positive social influence, integration and mental flexibility with experiences.[9] Wisdom is an active participation in one’s moral responsibility to oneself and others.[10] Wisdom contains virtues such as ethics and benevolence.[2][11]

Wisdom is a kind of flexible mentality.[12] The wise ones have equanimity (psychological stability) through tough times and an acceptance of reality.[13] Wisdom is associated with compromise, intellectual humility, acceptance of uncertainty, and perspective-taking.[14]

Wisdom transcends narrative.[15] Wisdom is the experience of intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication, and the transpersonal within the dimension of social psychology.[16] Wise ones use active and reflective listening, temperance (virtue), and a wise rhetoric.[17]

Wisdom is a verb.[18] Wisdom is the practice of virtue and wit.[19] Wisdom is personified as femininity (i.e., Sophia).[20][21]

Wisdom is self-knowledge, detachment, integration, and self-transcendence.[22] Wisdom the part of personality that uses cognition, self-reflection, and compassion.[23] Wisdom is critical thinking, emotional regulation, self-reflection, openness to experience, and humor.[24] Wisdom is self-knowledge, understanding, judgment, life knowledge and skills, and open-mindedness.[25] Wisdom is objectivity, perspective-taking and empathy, social engagement, and self-awareness.[26] Wisdom is mastery, openness, self-reflection, emotional regulation, and empathy.[27] Wisdom is self-knowledge, growth, self-regulation, and collectivism.[28] The components of wisdom are prosocial behavior, pragmatism, emotional regulation, self-reflection, relativism or multiculturalism, acceptance of ambiguity.[29] Wisdom is emotional regulation, discernment, virtue ethics, compassion, humility, altruism, patience, and resilience.[30] Wisdom includes intellectual humility, acceptance of change, compromise, and perspective-taking.[31] Wisdom is the use of existential insight, self-understanding, and benevolence.[32] Wisdom is a pragmatism of life experiences.[33] Wisdom contains sociality, emotional regulation, prosocial-ness, self-reflection, resilience, decisiveness, and spirituality.[34] Wisdom is morally sound meta-cognition.[35]

Early mention of wisdom in Beowulf

Charles Haddon Spurgeon defined wisdom as "the right use of knowledge".[36] Robert I. Sutton and Andrew Hargadon defined the "attitude of wisdom" as "acting with knowledge while doubting what one knows".[37]

In social and psychological sciences, several distinct approaches to wisdom exist,[2] along with techniques of operationalization[38] and measurement[4] of wisdom as a psychological construct. Wisdom is the capacity to have foreknowledge of something, to know the consequences (positive and negative) of the available courses of action, and take the best of the available options.[39]

Philosophical perspectives

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Philosophers have explored wisdom as a fundamental concept for millennia, debating its nature, acquisition, and role in ethical and intellectual life. Some traditions emphasize wisdom as practical decision-making, while others frame it as deep contemplation or spiritual insight. Broadly, wisdom has been categorized into theoretical wisdom (sophia), practical wisdom (phronesis), and moral wisdom, with varying interpretations across different philosophical traditions.

Western philosophy

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Main article: Western philosophy

Ancient Greek philosophy

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Main article: Ancient Greek philosophy

Wisdom (sophia, σοφία) played a central role in Ancient Greek philosophy and was often distinguished from mere knowledge (episteme, ἐπιστήμη).

Socrates
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According to Plato and Xenophon, the Pythia of the Delphic Oracle answered the question "who is the wisest man in Greece?" by stating Socrates was the wisest.[40] According to Plato's Apology, Socrates (469–399 BCE) decided to investigate the people who might be considered wiser than him, concluding they lacked true knowledge. He argued that true wisdom involves questioning and refining beliefs rather than assuming certainty:

This became immortalized in the phrase "I know that I know nothing", an aphorism suggesting that it is wise to recognize one's own ignorance[41] and to value epistemic humility.[42]

Plato and Aristotle
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To Socrates and his student Plato (c. 427–347 BCE), philosophy was literally the love of wisdom (philo-sophia). This permeates Plato's dialogues; in The Republic the leaders of his proposed utopia are philosopher kings who, through education and contemplation, attain a deep understanding of justice and the Forms, and possess the courage to act accordingly.[1]

Aristotle (384–322 BCE), in Metaphysics, defined wisdom as understanding why things are a certain way (causality), which is deeper than merely knowing things are a certain way. was the first to differentiate between two types of wisdom:

  • Theoretical wisdom (sophia), which involves deep contemplation of universal truths.
  • Practical wisdom (phronesis), which is the ability to make sound decisions in everyday life.

Aristotle saw phronesis as essential for ethical living, arguing that virtuous actions require both knowledge and experience. This concept of practical wisdom later influenced virtue ethics and modern discussions of decision-making.[1]

Medieval and Renaissance thought

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In the Medieval period, wisdom was often linked to divine revelation and theology. Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) viewed wisdom as knowledge aligned with God's eternal truth, distinguishing it from mere worldly intelligence.[43] He argued that true wisdom (sapientia) comes from knowing and loving God, contrasting it with human knowledge (scientia), which concerns temporal matters.[44]

Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) built upon Aristotle's distinction between theoretical and practical wisdom, incorporating it into Christian theology. He argued that wisdom (sapientia) is the highest intellectual virtue, guiding reason toward ultimate truth and divine understanding.[45] Aquinas distinguished between natural wisdom, which humans acquire through reason, and supernatural wisdom, which comes through divine revelation.[46]

During the Renaissance, humanist thinkers such as Erasmus (1466–1536) and Montaigne (1533–1592) emphasized the role of self-reflection and skepticism in wisdom, challenging dogmatic reliance on authority.[47] Montaigne, in his Essays, proposed that true wisdom lies in acknowledging uncertainty and maintaining intellectual humility.[48] The Renaissance emphasis on human reason and critical inquiry laid the groundwork for early modern philosophical discussions of wisdom.

Modern and contemporary philosophy

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In the Age of Enlightenment, the concept of wisdom shifted from religious and metaphysical frameworks to one rooted in rationality and moral duty. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued that wisdom involves the application of practical reason to align one’s actions with universal moral principles.[49] He distinguished between theoretical reason, which seeks knowledge for its own sake, and practical reason, which applies knowledge ethically. Kantian wisdom involves making decisions that conform to the categorical imperative, a moral law derived from reason.

During the 19th century, romanticism and existentialism challenged the rationalist foundations of wisdom. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) criticized traditional views of wisdom as passive contemplation and obedience to moral codes. Instead, he championed "life-affirming wisdom", emphasizing personal growth through struggle and self-overcoming.[50] Nietzsche rejected the pursuit of static truths, instead advocating for a dynamic and self-created form of wisdom.

Existentialist philosophers further expanded this critique. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) viewed wisdom as a confrontation with the absurd condition of life and the freedom to create meaning in a world devoid of inherent purpose.[51] Albert Camus (1913–1960) echoed these ideas in The Myth of Sisyphus, arguing that wisdom lies in accepting life's absurdity and choosing to live meaningfully despite its challenges.[52]

In the 20th century, pragmatist philosophers like John Dewey (1859–1952) argued for a form of wisdom based on adaptability and practical decision-making. Dewey rejected fixed moral absolutes in favor of wisdom as a constantly evolving process of inquiry and experimentation.[53] Pragmatic wisdom, according to Dewey, emerges from ongoing reflection on experience and the ability to adapt principles to changing contexts.

Meanwhile, virtue ethicists such as Martha Nussbaum argue that wisdom is tied to emotional intelligence and empathy. In her works on Aristotelian ethics, Nussbaum writes that wise individuals understand the complexities of human emotions and integrate them into moral reasoning.[54] This perspective sees wisdom not merely as intellectual discernment but as the capacity to recognize the emotional and contextual dimensions of moral life.

Postmodern philosophers challenge the notion of wisdom as a universal concept. Michel Foucault (1926–1984) argued that ideas of wisdom are shaped by power structures and are inherently subjective, often serving to reinforce dominant ideologies.[55] Postmodern perspectives emphasize cultural relativism and the diversity of wisdom across historical and social contexts rather than a singular definition.

Today, contemporary discussions of wisdom draw from cognitive science and social philosophy. Philosophers like Philip Kitcher focus on practical wisdom as collaborative decision-making in democratic societies.[56] This view holds that wisdom is not an individual trait but a collective process involving diverse perspectives. As such, modern philosophy views wisdom as dynamic, context-dependent, and shaped by emotional, social, and cognitive factors.

Eastern philosophy

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Main article: Eastern philosophy

In Confucian thought

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Main article: Confucianism
Confucius in a fresco from a Western Han tomb in Dongping, Shandong

In Confucian thought, wisdom (zhi, 智) is closely linked to ethical living and social harmony. Confucius (551–479 BCE) taught that wisdom is not merely intelligence but the ability to act virtuously in relationships and governance.[57] It involves self-cultivation, learning from the past, and practicing benevolence (ren, 仁), which Confucius regarded as a foundational virtue.[58]

Wisdom in Confucianism is practical and moral, requiring individuals to cultivate righteousness (yi, 義) and ritual propriety (li, 禮) in order to contribute to a stable society.[59] The ideal wise person, or "superior person" (junzi, 君子), embodies wisdom by continuously refining their character and aligning their actions with ethical principles.[60]

Later Confucian thinkers expanded on this concept. Mencius (372–289 BCE) emphasized compassion and moral intuition as sources of wisdom, arguing that humans are naturally inclined toward goodness but must develop wisdom through education and reflection.[61] Xunzi (c. 310–235 BCE), by contrast, saw wisdom as the product of strict discipline and adherence to ritual, believing that human nature is inherently flawed and must be shaped through deliberate effort.[62]

The Confucian approach to wisdom remains influential in East Asian ethics, education, and leadership philosophy, continuing to shape modern discussions on morality and governance.[63]

In Buddhist philosophy

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Main article: Buddhist philosophy
Shakyamuni Buddha flanked by Chenrezig and Manjushri

In Buddhist philosophy, wisdom (prajñā, प्रज्ञा) is one of the threefold training principles (along with ethics and meditation). It involves seeing reality as it truly is, free from delusions. In Mahayana Buddhism, wisdom is often personified by the Bodhisattva Manjushri, who wields a sword to cut through ignorance. Zen traditions emphasize satori (悟り), a sudden flash of wisdom or enlightenment. In Theravāda Buddhism, wisdom is developed through vipassanā (insight meditation), leading to the realization of impermanence (anicca), suffering (duḥkha), and non-self (anattā). Buddhist religious traditions provide comprehensive guidance on how to develop wisdom.[64][65]

The term Prajñā was translated into Chinese as 智慧 (pinyin zhìhuì, characters 智 "knowledge" and 慧 "bright, intelligent"). In Chinese Buddhism, the idea of wisdom is closely linked to its Indian equivalent as it appears for instance in certain conceptual continuities that exist between Asanga, Vasubandhu and Xuanzang.[further explanation needed][66]

Developing wisdom is of central importance in Buddhist traditions, where the ultimate aim is often presented as "seeing things as they are" or as gaining a "penetrative understanding of all phenomena", which in turn is described as ultimately leading to the "complete freedom from suffering".[64][65] In Buddhism, developing wisdom is accomplished through an understanding of what are known as the Four Noble Truths and by following the Noble Eightfold Path.[64][65] This path lists mindfulness as one of eight required components for cultivating wisdom.[64]

Buddhist scriptures teach that wise people conduct themselves well.[67] A wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results, and does not do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results.[68] Wisdom is the antidote to the poison of ignorance. The Buddha has much to say on the subject of wisdom including:

  • He who arbitrates a case by force does not thereby become just (established in Dhamma). But the wise man is he who carefully discriminates between right and wrong.[69]
  • He who leads others by nonviolence, righteously and equitably, is indeed a guardian of justice, wise and righteous.[70]
  • One is not wise merely because he talks much. But he who is calm, free from hatred and fear, is verily called a wise man.[71]
  • By quietude alone one does not become a sage (muni) if he is foolish and ignorant. But he who, as if holding a pair of scales, takes the good and shuns the evil, is a wise man; he is indeed a muni by that very reason. He who understands both good and evil as they really are, is called a true sage.[72]

To recover the original supreme wisdom of self-nature (Buddha-nature or Tathagata) concealed by the self-imposed three dusty poisons (the kleshas: greed, anger, ignorance), Buddha taught to his students the threefold training by turning greed into generosity and discipline, anger into kindness and meditation, ignorance into wisdom.[citation needed]

In Hindu philosophy

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Main article: Hindu philosophy

In Hindu philosophy, wisdom (jñāna, ज्ञान) is closely associated with self-realization and spiritual knowledge. Unlike the empirical knowledge (vidyā, विद्या) gained through sensory experience, wisdom in Hinduism involves insight into the ultimate nature of reality (Brahman, ब्रह्मन्) and the self (Ātman, आत्मन्).[73] The Upanishads, foundational texts of Hindu thought, describe wisdom as the realization that all worldly distinctions are illusions (maya, माया), and that the self is one with the infinite consciousness of Brahman.[74]

Within Vedanta philosophy, wisdom is considered the path to liberation (mokṣa, मोक्ष). Adi Shankaracharya (c. 8th century CE) argued that true wisdom (jnana yoga) arises through discrimination (viveka, विवेक) between the real and the unreal.[75] He taught that ignorance (avidyā, अविद्या) binds individuals to the cycle of samsara (rebirth), and wisdom is the means to overcome illusion and attain self-realization.[76] In contrast, Dvaita Vedanta, founded by Madhvacharya (13th century CE), holds that wisdom involves recognizing the eternal distinction between the self and God, rather than dissolving all distinctions.[77]

Wisdom is also a core element in Hindu sacred texts, including the Bhagavad Gita, where Krishna teaches Arjuna that true wisdom transcends personal desires and emotions.[78] The Gita outlines three paths to wisdom:

  • Jnana yoga – the path of intellectual discernment and self-inquiry.
  • Bhakti yoga – the path of devotion to a personal deity as a means to wisdom.
  • Karma yoga – the path of selfless action leading to enlightened understanding.[79]

Hindu wisdom traditions remain deeply influential in both spiritual practice and philosophical inquiry, with modern thinkers like Swami Vivekananda and Aurobindo Ghose integrating ancient wisdom concepts with contemporary thought.[80] Medha is a goddess of wisdom found in the Garuda Purana.[81]

In Taoist philosophy

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Main article: Taoist philosophy
Bagua diagram from Zhao Huiqian's (趙撝謙) Liushu benyi (六書本義, c. 1370s)

Taoist wisdom (wu wei, 無為) emphasizes effortless action, aligning with the natural flow of the universe (Tao). While early Confucianism values social harmony and structured virtue, Taoist wisdom often embraces paradox and non-conformity. The Zhuangzi text, attributed to Zhuang Zhou (c. 4th century BCE), presents wisdom as a state of effortless flow (wu wei), where one aligns with the spontaneous patterns of nature rather than imposing human will.[82] This contrasts with Confucian ideals of ritual and duty, as Taoist wisdom values freedom from rigid thinking and acceptance of change.[83]

Taoist wisdom also includes cosmological insight, recognizing that all things emerge from the Tao (道), the fundamental force of existence.[84] In Tao Te Ching (道德經), attributed to Laozi (6th century BCE), wisdom is described as yielding like water, able to overcome obstacles through gentleness rather than force.[85] This perspective aligns with Taoist ethics, which discourage aggression and rigid control, instead promoting a harmonious existence in sync with nature’s rhythms.[86] He also describes wisdom as understanding the balance of opposites (Yin and Yang) and acting in harmony with nature rather than imposing force.[85]

Unlike Western views, Taoist wisdom often involves paradox and non-action, valuing spontaneity over rigid rules. Taoist sages are often depicted as detached from worldly concerns, seeking a deeper, wordless understanding of existence that transcends conventional logic.[87]

Psychological perspectives

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Main article: Expert
Further information: Developmental psychology and personality psychology

The three major psychological categories for wisdom are personality, development, and expertise.[88]

Psychologists have begun to gather data on commonly held beliefs or folk theories about wisdom.[89] Initial analyses indicate that although "there is an overlap of the implicit theory of wisdom with intelligence, perceptiveness, spirituality, and shrewdness, it is evident that wisdom is an expertise in dealing with difficult questions of life and adaptation to the complex requirements."[90]

The field of psychology has also developed explicit theories and empirical research on the psychological processes underlying wisdom.[91] [2] Opinions on the psychological definition of wisdom vary,[2] but there is some consensus that critical to wisdom are certain meta-cognitive processes that afford life reflection and judgment about critical life matters.[92][38] These processes include recognizing the limits of one's own knowledge, acknowledging uncertainty and change, attention to context and the bigger picture, and integrating different perspectives of a situation.[93] Cognitive scientists suggest that wisdom requires coordinating such reasoning processes for insight into managing one's life.[94] Reasoning of this sort is both theoretically and empirically distinct from general (fluid or crystallized) intelligence.[95] Researchers have shown empirically that wise reasoning is distinct from IQ.[96]

Baltes and colleagues defined wisdom as "the ability to deal with the contradictions of a specific situation and to assess the consequences of an action for themselves and for others. It is achieved when in a concrete situation, a balance between intrapersonal, interpersonal and institutional interests can be prepared".[97] Balance appears to be a critical criterion of wisdom. Empirical research provides some support for this idea, showing that wisdom-related reasoning is associated with achieving balance between intrapersonal and interpersonal interests when facing personal life challenges, and when setting goals for managing interpersonal conflicts.[4][98]

Researchers also explore the role of emotions in wisdom.[99] Most agree that emotions and emotion regulation are key to effectively managing the kinds of complex and arousing situations that most call for wisdom. Much empirical research has focused on the cognitive or meta-cognitive aspects of wisdom, assuming that an ability to reason through difficult situations is paramount. So although emotions likely play a role in how wisdom plays out in real events (and in reflecting on past events), empirical studies were late to develop on how emotions affect a person's ability to deal wisely with complex events. One study found a positive relationship between diversity of emotional experience and wise reasoning, irrespective of emotional intensity.[100]

Gestalt therapy

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Main article: Gestalt therapy

A wise-person fantasy is an awareness intervention, where one poses a question, thinks on it for a few minutes, and then role-plays a fantasized wise person to answer that same question.[101]

Grossman

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Grossmann and colleagues summarized prior psychological literature to conclude that wisdom involves certain cognitive processes that afford unbiased, sound judgment in the face of ill-defined life situations:

  1. intellectual humility, or recognition of limits of own knowledge
  2. appreciation of perspectives broader than the issue at hand
  3. sensitivity to the possibility of change in social relations
  4. compromise or integration of different perspectives[102][103]

Grossmann found that habitually speaking and thinking of oneself in the third person increases these characteristics, which means that such a habit makes a person wiser.[104] Grossmann says contextual factors – such as culture, experiences, and social situations – influence the understanding, development, and propensity of wisdom, with implications for training and educational practice.[38][102] These contextual factors are the focus of continuing research. For instance, Grossmann and Kross identified a phenomenon they called "the Solomon's paradox": that people reflect more wisely on other people's problems than on their own. (It is named after King Solomon, who had legendary sagacity when making judgments about other people's dilemmas but lacked insight when it came to important decisions in his own life.)[105]

Measuring wisdom

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A researcher will measure wisdom differently depending on their theoretical position about the nature of wisdom. For example, some view wisdom as a stable personality trait, others as a context-bound process.[106] Those wedded to the former approach often use single-shot questionnaires, which are prone to biased[clarification needed] responses,[4][107] something that is antithetical to the wisdom construct[108] and fails to study wisdom in the contexts where it is most relevant: complex life challenges. In contrast, researchers who prefer the latter approach measure wisdom-related features of cognition, motivation, and emotion in the context of a specific situation.[109][106] Such state-level measures provide less-biased responses as well as greater power in explaining meaningful psychological processes.[4] Also, a focus on the situation allows wisdom researchers to develop a fuller understanding of the role of context in producing wisdom.[106] For example, studies have shown evidence of cross-cultural[110] and within-cultural variability,[111] and systematic variability in reasoning wisely across contexts[4][105] and in daily life.[112]

Many, but not all, studies find that adults' self-ratings of perspective and wisdom do not depend on age.[113][114][115] This conflicts with the popular notion that wisdom increases with age.[114] The answer to whether age and wisdom correlate depends on how one defines wisdom and one's experimental technique. The answer to this question also depends on the domain studied, and the role of experience in that domain, with some contexts favoring older adults, others favoring younger adults, and some not differentiating age groups.[106] Rigorous longitudinal work is needed to answer this question, while most studies rely on cross-sectional observations.[39]

The Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index[116] is based on a 28-question survey (SD-WISE-28) created by researchers at the University of California San Diego to determine how wise a person is. In 2021 Dr. Dilip V. Jeste and his colleagues created a 7-question survey (SD-WISE-7) testing seven components: acceptance of diverse perspectives, decisiveness, emotional regulation, prosocial behaviors, self-reflection, social advising, and (to a lesser degree) spirituality.[117]

Archetypal psychology

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Main article: Wise Old Man and Wise Old Woman
For broader coverage of this topic, see Jungian archetypes.

The wise old person is an unconscious attitude concerning nature and the collective unconscious.[118]

Star Wars is a monomyth that uses archetypal psychology, specifically Joseph Campbell's The Hero of a Thousand Faces.[119] The character Master Yoda from the films evokes the trope of the wise old man,[120] and he is frequently quoted, analogously to Chinese thinkers or Eastern sages in general.[121][122]

Religious perspectives

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Zoroastrianism

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Main article: Zoroastrianism

In the Avesta Gathas, hymns traditionally attributed to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda means "Lord" (Ahura) and "Wisdom" (Mazda), and is the central deity who embodies goodness, being also called "Good Thought" (Vohu Manah).[123] In Zoroastrianism, the order of the universe and morals is called asha (in Avestan, truth, righteousness), which is determined by this omniscient Thought and also considered a deity emanating from Ahura (Amesha Spenta). It is related to another ahura deity, Spenta Mainyu (active Mentality).[124] It says in Yazna 31:[125]

To him shall the best befall, who, as one that knows, speaks to me Right's truthful word of Welfare and of Immortality; even the Dominion of Mazda which Good Thought shall increase for him. About which he in the beginning thus thought, "let the blessed realms be filled with Light", he it is that by his wisdom created Right.

Hellenistic religion and Gnosticism

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Main articles: Sophia (wisdom) and Sophia (Gnosticism)

Abrahamic religions

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Main article: Abrahamic religions

Hebrew Bible and Judaism

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See also: Chokmah and Wisdom literature
Image from "Book of Wisdom" of Francysk Skaryna 1518

The word "wisdom" (חכם) is mentioned 222 times in the Hebrew Bible. It was regarded as one of the highest virtues among the Israelites along with kindness (חסד) and justice (צדק). The books of Proverbs and Psalms each urge readers to obtain and to increase in wisdom.[citation needed]

In the Hebrew Bible, wisdom is exemplified by Solomon, who asks God for wisdom in 2 Chronicles 1:10. Much of the Book of Proverbs, which is filled with wise sayings, is attributed to Solomon. In Proverbs 9:10, the fear of the Lord is called the beginning of wisdom. Another proverb says that wisdom is gained from God, "For the Lord gives wisdom; from His mouth come knowledge and understanding".[126] In Proverbs 1:20, there is also reference to wisdom personified in female form, "Wisdom calls aloud in the streets, she raises her voice in the marketplaces." In Proverbs 8:22–31, this personified wisdom is described as being present with God before creation began and even as taking part in creation itself.

King Solomon continues his teachings of wisdom in the book of Ecclesiastes. Solomon discusses his exploration of the meaning of life and fulfillment, as he speaks of life's pleasures, work, and materialism, yet concludes that it is all meaningless. "'Meaningless! Meaningless!" says the Teacher [Solomon]. 'Utterly meaningless! Everything is meaningless'...For with much wisdom comes much sorrow, the more knowledge, the more grief"[127] Solomon concludes that all life's pleasures and riches, and even [human]wisdom, mean nothing if there is no relationship with God.[128]

The Talmud teaches that a wise person can foresee the future. Nolad is a Hebrew word for "future," but also the Hebrew word for "birth", so one rabbinic interpretation of the teaching is that a wise person is one who can foresee the consequences of his/her choices (i.e. can "see the future" that he/she "gives birth" to).[129]

Christian theology

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Main article: Holy Wisdom
David and Abigail. Abigail was a "wise woman" who helped David. 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld

In Christian theology, "wisdom" (From Hebrew: חכמה transliteration: chokmâh pronounced: khok-maw', Greek: Sophia, Latin: Sapientia) describes an aspect of God, or the theological concept regarding the wisdom of God.[citation needed]

Christian thought opposes secular wisdom and embraces Godly wisdom. Paul the Apostle states that worldly wisdom thinks the claims of Christ to be foolishness. However, to those who are "on the path to salvation" Christ represents the wisdom of God.[130] Wisdom is considered one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.[131] 1 Corinthians 12:8–10 gives an alternate list of nine virtues, among which is wisdom.

The Epistle of James is a New Testament analogue of the book of Proverbs, in that it also discusses wisdom. It reiterates the message from Proverbs that wisdom comes from God by stating, "If any of you lacks wisdom, you should ask God, who gives generously to all without finding fault, and it will be given to you".[132] James also explains how wisdom helps one acquire other forms of virtue: "But the wisdom that comes from heaven is first of all pure; then peace-loving, considerate, submissive, full of mercy and good fruit, impartial and sincere."[133] James focuses on using this God-given wisdom to perform acts of service to the less fortunate.

Apart from Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and James, other main books of wisdom in the Bible are Job, Psalms, and 1 and 2 Corinthians, which give lessons on gaining and using wisdom through difficult situations.

Islam

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Main article: Hikmah

The Islamic term for wisdom is hikmah. Prophets of Islam are believed by Muslims to possess great wisdom. The term occurs a number of times in the Quran, notably in Sura 2:269, Sura 22:46, and Sura 6:151.

The Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi considers al-Hakim ("The Wise") as one of the names of the Creator.[134] Wisdom and truth, considered divine attributes, were valued in Islamic sciences and philosophy. The first Arab philosopher, Al-Kindi says at the beginning of his book:[135]

We must not be ashamed to admire the truth or to acquire it, from wherever it comes. Even if it should come from far-flung nations and foreign peoples, there is for the student of truth nothing more important than the truth, nor is the truth demeaned or diminished by the one who states or conveys it; no one is demeaned by the truth, rather all are ennobled by it.

— Al-Kindi, On First Philosophy

Baháʼí Faith

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In Baháʼí Faith scripture, "The essence of wisdom is the fear of God, the dread of His scourge and punishment, and the apprehension of His justice and decree."[136] Wisdom is seen as a light that casts away darkness, and "its dictates must be observed under all circumstances".[137] One may obtain knowledge and wisdom through God, his Word, and his Divine Manifestation; the source of all learning is the knowledge of God.[138]

Cultural and literary depictions

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Wisdom Defending Youth against Love by Meynier, c. 1810
Truth and Wisdom assist History in writing by Jacob de Wit, 1754

In mythology

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Mesopotamian mythology

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In Mesopotamian religion and mythology, Enki, also known as Ea, was the god of wisdom and intelligence. Divine wisdom allowed the provident designation of functions[clarification needed] and the ordering of the cosmos, and it[ambiguous] was achieved by humans by following mes (in Sumerian: order, rite, righteousness) which maintain balance.[139] In addition to hymns to Enki or Ea dating from the third millennium BCE, there is among the clay tablets of Abu Salabikh from 2600 BCE (the oldest dated texts), a "Hymn to Shamash" which includes the following:[140]

Wide is the courtyard of Shamash night chamber, (just as wide is the womb of) a wise pregnant woman! Sin, his warrior, wise one, heard of the offerings and came down to his fiesta. He is the father of the nation and the father of intelligence

Egyptian mythology

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Main article: Egyptian mythology
Further information: Sia (god) and Thoth

Sia was the personification of perception and thoughtfulness in the mythology of Ancient Egypt. Thoth, married to Maat (in ancient Egyptian: order, righteousness, truth), was regarded as the being who introduced wisdom to the nation.[141][142]

The concept of Logos – manifest word of the divine thought – was also present in the philosophy and hymns of Egypt and Ancient Greece.[142] It was important in the thinking of Heraclitus, and in the Abrahamic traditions. It seems to have been derived from Mesopotamian culture.[143]

Greek mythology

[edit]
Athena and metis
[edit]
Main articles: Athena and Metis (mythology)

Athena (as Mentor) supported him by recognizing and fostering courage, hope, sense, bravery, and adeptness (Homer, trans. 1996, p. 102).[144]

— Sommer

The ancient Greeks considered wisdom to be an important virtue, personified as the goddesses Metis and Athena. Metis was the first wife of Zeus, who, according to Hesiod's Theogony, had devoured her pregnant; Zeus earned the title of Mêtieta ("The Wise Counselor") after that, as Metis was the embodiment of wisdom, and he gave birth to Athena, who is said to have sprung from his head.[145][146] Athena was portrayed as strong, fair, merciful, and chaste.[147]

Apollo
[edit]
Main article: Apollo

Apollo was also considered a god of wisdom, designated as the conductor of the Muses (Musagetes),[148] who were personifications of the sciences and of the inspired and poetic arts. According to Plato in his Cratylus, the name of Apollo could also mean "ballon" (archer) and "omopoulon" (unifier of poles [divine and earthly]), since this god was responsible for divine and true inspirations, thus considered an archer who was always right in healing and oracles: "he is an ever-darting archer".[149] Apollo prophesied through the priestesses (Pythia) in the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), where the aphorism "know thyself" (gnōthi seauton)[a] was inscribed (one of the Delphic maxims).[150] He was contrasted with Hermes, who was related to the sciences and technical wisdom, and, in the first centuries after Christ, was associated with Thoth in an Egyptian syncretism, under the name Hermes Trimegistus.[151] Greek tradition recorded the earliest introducers of wisdom in the Seven Sages of Greece.[152]

Roman mythology

[edit]
Main article: Roman mythology

The ancient Romans also valued wisdom, which was personified as Minerva or Pallas. She also represents skillful knowledge and the virtues, especially chastity. Her symbol was the owl, which is still a popular representation of wisdom, because it can see in darkness. She was said to have been born from Jupiter's forehead.[153]

Norse mythology

[edit]
Main article: Norse mythology
Further information: Odin and Mimir

Odin is known for his wisdom, often as acquired through various hardships and ordeals involving pain and self-sacrifice. In one instance he plucked out an eye and offered it to Mímir, guardian of the well of knowledge and wisdom, in return for a drink from the well.[154] In another famous account, Odin hanged himself for nine nights from Yggdrasil, the World Tree that unites all the realms of existence, suffering from hunger and thirst and finally wounding himself with a spear until he gained the knowledge of runes for use in casting powerful magic.[155] He was also able to acquire the mead of poetry from the giants, a drink of which could grant the power of a scholar or poet, for the benefit of gods and mortals alike.[154]

In folklore

[edit]

Wisdom tooth

[edit]
For broader coverage of this topic, see Wisdom tooth.

In many cultures, the name for third molars, which are the last teeth to grow, is etymologically linked with wisdom, as in the English wisdom tooth. This nickname originated from the classical tradition – the Hippocratic writings used the term sóphronistér (in Greek, related to the meaning of moderation or teaching a lesson), and in Latin dens sapientiae (wisdom tooth).[156]

Educational perspectives

[edit]

Public schools in the U.S. sometimes nod at "character education" which would include training in wisdom.[157]

Maxwell's educational philosophy

[edit]
See also: Nicholas Maxwell

Nicholas Maxwell, a philosopher in the United Kingdom, believes academia ought to alter its focus from the acquisition of knowledge to seeking and promoting wisdom.[158] This he defines as the capacity to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others.[159] He teaches that new knowledge and technological know-how increase our power to act. Without wisdom though, Maxwell claims this new knowledge may cause human harm as well as human good. He argues that the pursuit of knowledge is indeed valuable and good, but that it should be considered a part of the broader task of improving wisdom.[160]

Theories and models

[edit]
  • The Berlin Wisdom Paradigm is an expertise model of life wisdom.[161][162]
  • The Balance Theory of Wisdom[162]
  • The Self-transcendence Wisdom Theory[162]
  • The Three-dimensional Wisdom Theory[162]
  • The H.E.R.O.(E.) Model of Wisdom[162]
  • The Process View of Wisdom[162]
  • The Integrating Virtue and Wit Theory of Wisdom[162]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Critias states the meaning of "know thyself" in Plato's Charmides (165a)

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Trowbridge, R. H. (May 2011). "Waiting for Sophia: 30 years of Conceptualizing Wisdom in Empirical Psychology". Research in Human Development. 8 (2): 111–117. doi:10.1080/15427609.2011.568872. S2CID 145371442.
  2. ^ a b c d e Staudinger, U.M.; Glück, J. (2011). "Psychological wisdom research: Commonalities and differences in a growing field". Annual Review of Psychology. 62: 215–241. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131659. PMID 20822439.
  3. ^ Glück, J. (October 2018). "Measuring Wisdom: Existing Approaches, Continuing Challenges, and New Developments". The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 73 (8): 1393–1403. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbx140. PMC 6178965. PMID 29281060.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Brienza, J.P.; Kung, F.Y.H.; Santos, H.; Bobocel, D.R.; Grossmann, I. (2017). "Wisdom, Bias, and Balance: Toward a Process-Sensitive Measurement of Wisdom-Related Cognition". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 115 (6): 1093–1126. doi:10.1037/pspp0000171. PMID 28933874. S2CID 29052539.
  5. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Clayton & Birren (1980); Clayton (1982) [state that] Wisdom is the ability to grasp human nature, which is understood to be paradoxical, contradictory, and subject to continual change.
  6. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Baltes & Smith (1990, 2008); Baltes & Staudinger (1993, 2000) [state that] Wisdom is an expert knowledge system in the fundamental pragmatics of life permitting exceptional insight, judgment, and advice involving complex and uncertain matters of the human condition. […] Yang (2001, 2008) [states that] Wisdom is a special kind of real-life process that is accomplished after a person: cognitively makes an unusual integration; embodies his or her ideas through action, and thereby generates positive effects for both self and others.
  7. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Kahn (2005) [states that] Wisdom actually refers to a widespread set of beliefs and rules for behavior that help individuals adapt to normal situations and situations of great change and enhance human welfare.
  8. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Kramer (2000) [states that] Wisdom is excellent judgment about human affairs.
  9. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Chen et al. (2011, 2014) [state that wisdom is] Insightful knowledge, implementation of ideals, achieving positive results affecting other people, feedback-adjusted actions as facilitated by work experiences, life experiences, social interactions, observations, family teachings, professional development, religion, and reading.
  10. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Nayak (2016) [states that] Wisdom is a balance between active agency and passivity and the acceptance of finding oneself in difficult situations and recognising one's moral responsibilities.
  11. ^ Walsh, Roger (June 2015). "What Is wisdom? Cross-cultural and cross-Disciplinary Syntheses". Review of General Psychology. 19 (3): 178–293. doi:10.1037/gpr0000045. S2CID 146383832.
  12. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Meacham (1983) [states that] Wisdom is achieved by those who can maintain a balance between the extremes of rigidity and cautiousness, who can continue to acquire knowledge while simultaneously recognizing and constructing new uncertainties, doubts, and questions.
  13. ^ Ardelt, Monika (2004). "Wisdom as Expert Knowledge System: A Critical Review of a Contemporary Operationalization of an Ancient Concept". Human Development. 47 (5): 257–285. doi:10.1159/000079154. JSTOR 26763810. Retrieved 25 July 2024. Wise people, [...] accept the positive as well as the negative side of reality [Assmann, 1994; Gadamer, 1960; Strijbos, 1995; Weinsheimer, 1985]. They are satisfied with their lives not because they concentrate only on its positive aspects but because they are aware of and can accept the reality of the present moment [Blanchard-Fields & Norris, 1995; Hart, 1987]. As a consequence, wise individuals can face even the most difficult situations with equanimity, such as the physical and social challenges that accompany old age [Ardelt, 1997, 2000a; Clayton, 1982; Kramer, 2000].
  14. ^ Grossmann, Igor (2017). "Wisdom in Context". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 12 (2): 233–257. doi:10.1177/1745691616672066. PMID 28346113. S2CID 26818408. Retrieved 18 July 2024. Compromise [...] Intellectual humility [...] Recognition of uncertainty and change [...] Others' perspectives / broader contexts
  15. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Ricoeur (1992) [states that] Wisdom transcends narrative, betrays values the least.
  16. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Achenbaum & Orwoll (1991) [state that] Wisdom is intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal experiences in the dimensions of cognition (thought), affect (feeling), and conation (behavior).
  17. ^ Baltes, Paul B.; Smith, Jacqui (2008). "The Fascination of Wisdom: Its Nature, Ontogeny, and Function". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 3 (1): 56–64. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00062.x. JSTOR 40212228. PMID 26158670. Retrieved 27 July 2024. Finally, wisdom is manifested in nonverbal and social behavior. Actions considered to be appropriate to confidential advice giving such as attentive listening, empathy, and tempered concern contribute to the attribution that a person is wise, especially if combined with older age and a wise verbal commentary (Stange, 2005).
  18. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Blatner (2005) [states that] Wisdom should be thought of as a verb or a gerund, as an activity, something one does, rather than a fixed state, as if it were apossession or social status.
  19. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Wang & Zheng (2012, 2014); Chen & Wang (2013) [state that] Wisdom is a comprehensive psychological quality that combines virtue and wit, both acquired through experience and practice based on and personal intelligence and knowledge.
  20. ^ "Wisdom". Oxford English Dictionary. July 2023. Retrieved 18 July 2024. judging rightly in matters relating to life and conduct; soundness of judgement in the choice of means and ends; sometimes, less strictly, sound sense [...] Personified (almost always as feminine) [...] Knowledge (esp. of a high or abstruse kind); enlightenment, learning, erudition
  21. ^ Meehan, Brenda (1996). "Wisdom/Sophia, Russian Identity, and Western Feminist Theology". CrossCurrents. 46 (2): 149–168. JSTOR 24460264. Retrieved 21 July 2024.
  22. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Curnow (1995) [states that] Wisdom consists of the four progressively developed features: self-knowledge, detachment, integration, and self-transcendence. […] Aldwin (2009) [states that] Wisdom is a practice that reflects the developmental process by which individuals increase in self-knowledge, self-integration, nonattachment, self-transcendence, and compassion, as well as a deeper understanding of life. This practice involves better self-regulation and ethical choices, resulting in greater good for oneself and others.
  23. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Ardelt (2003) [states that] Wisdom is a three-dimensional personality characteristic that integrates cognition, reflection and compassion.
  24. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Webster (2003) [states that] Wisdom is a multidimensional cohesion of five mutually interdependent factors: critical experience, emotional regulation, reminiscence (reflectiveness), openness, and humor.
  25. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Brown (2004); Brown & Greene (2006) [state that] Six factors contribute to wisdom development: Self-knowledge, understanding of others, judgment, life knowledge, life skills, and willingness to learn.
  26. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Bassett (2005, 2012) [states that] Emergent wisdom includes four dimensions: Discerning, a cognitive function and characterized primarily by objectivity; Respecting, characterized by openness and including multiple-perspective taking and empathy; Engaging, characterized by involvement; and Transformative reflecting, characterized by self-awareness.
  27. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Bluck & Glück (2004); Glück & Bluck (2013) [state that] These [wisdom] resources are a sense of mastery, openness, reflectivity, and emotion regulation/empathy.
  28. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Mickler & Staudinger (2008) [state that] Personal wisdom integrates rich self-knowledge, heuristics of growth and self-regulation, interrelating the self, self-relativism, and tolerance of ambiguity to realize one's personal potential and the well-being of others and society at large.
  29. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Meeks & Jeste (2009) [state that] Wisdom mainly consists of six subcomponents: prosocial attitudes/behaviors, social decision-making/pragmatic knowledge of life, emotional homeostasis, reflection/self-understanding, value relativism/tolerance, acknowledgement of and dealing effectively with uncertainty/ambiguity.
  30. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Hall (2010) [states that] Wisdom includes emotional regulation, knowing what's important, moral reasoning, compassion, humility, altruism, patience, and dealing with uncertainty.
  31. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Grossmann et al. (2010, 2013); Grossmann (2017b) [state that] Wisdom includes intellectual humility, recognition of uncertainty and change, other's perspectives/broader contexts and compromise.
  32. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Walsh (2015) [states that] Wisdom is deep accurate insight and understanding of oneself and the central existential issues of life, plus skillful benevolent responsiveness.
  33. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Weststrate & Glück (2017) [state that] Wisdom as a body of experience-based knowledge about the fundamental issues of human life that is both broad and deep, and implicit and explicit.
  34. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Jeste & Lee (2019) [state that] Wisdom may be defined as a complex human trait with several specific components: Social decision making, emotion regulation, prosocial behaviors, self-reflection, acceptance of uncertainty, decisiveness, and spirituality.
  35. ^ Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC 8817649. PMID 35153458. Grossmann et al. (2020) [state that] Wisdom is morally-grounded excellence in certain aspects of meta-cognition.
  36. ^ Spurgeon, Charles Haddon (1871), The Fourfold Treasure, №991, Wisdom is, I suppose, the right use of knowledge. To know is not to be wise. Many men know a great deal, and are all the greater fools for it. There is no fool so great a fool as a knowing fool. But to know how to use knowledge is to have wisdom.
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  88. ^ Baltes, Paul B.; Staudinger, Ursula M. (2000). "Wisdom: A Metaheuristic (Pragmatic) to Orchestrate Mind and Virtue Toward Excellence". American Psychologist. 55 (1): 122–136. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4. PMID 11392856. Retrieved 27 July 2024. Theoretical and empirical work on explicit psychological theories of wisdom can be roughly divided into three groups: (a) the conceptualization of wisdom as a personal characteristic or constellation of personality dispositions (e.g., Erikson, 1959; McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1998), (b) the conceptualization of wisdom in the neo-Piagetian tradition of postformal and dialectical thought (e.g., Alex ander & Langer, 1990; Labouvie-Vief, 1990), and (c) the conceptualization of wisdom as an expert system dealing with the meaning and conduct of life (P. Baltes & Smith, 1990; Dittmann-Kohli & Baltes, 1990; Staudinger & Baltes, 1994).
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